Translated from Tamil by A. V. GODINA and D. M. GOLUBKOVA. Comment by L. B. ALAEVA

(c) 2002

Inscriptions on the walls of temples are known to be the main type of source for studying the history of South India from the first centuries AD to the XVI century. Their significance is especially great for the period of the V-XIII centuries. Recording mainly donations to temples and groups of Brahmins, they naturally provide the greatest material on the land ownership and land use of these legal entities. They are absolutely indispensable for establishing the chronology and skeleton of political history. But they also contain information on the economy of that period as a whole, as well as on the administrative structure of states, the social system, the functioning of non-Brahmin community organizations, etc.

The study of South Indian inscriptions has been going on for more than 100 years, but in our country it is just beginning. The following are translations of two inscriptions from the same dynasty, representing two very common types of epigraphy: an agreement to distribute interest on capital invested in a Brahmin village, and a royal land donation to a temple.

The Chola family has long belonged to one of the royal families of Tamil Nadu (along with the Pandya and Chera). The dynasty of the" imperial Cholas", as they are sometimes called, begins with Vijalaya, who in the mid-ninth century founded a principality centered in the traditional Chola capital of Tanjur (Tanjavur). His son Aditya I (871-907) destroyed the Pallava state, which had previously dominated Tamil Nadu, and became the lord of a vast kingdom. The Chola state reached its peak under Rajaraja I (985-1016) and Rajendra I (1012-1044), when it covered the whole of Tamil Nadu, many lands to the west and north of it, and part of Ceylon (Sri Lanka). There are stories about the campaigns of Rajaraja I to the Ganges, a naval expedition was made against the Malay maritime Empire of Srivijaya to the Malacca Peninsula and Sumatra. Then the kingdom began to weaken, and in 1070 the last direct descendant of the royal dynasty was overthrown by the ruler of the neighboring kingdom of Eastern Chalukyas, a female relative of the Cholas (his mother and wife were Chola princesses). He began to rule in 1063 under the name of Rajendra II, but after seizing the Chola throne, he changed not only his name, but also his "surname" - he became Kulottunga I Chola. Under him, the Chola empire regained its power. However, later it began to disintegrate again and ceased to be a major state by the end of the XII century. The following inscriptions refer to the reigns of the two great Chola sovereigns mentioned, Rajaraja I and Kulottunga I.

To understand the labels, you should give some general information. Tamil Nadu was traditionally divided into 4 major territories: Thondei Mandalam (renamed Jaya Gondachola Mandalam under the Cholas), Chola Mandalam (territory centered in Tanjur), Pandya mandalam (centered in Madurai) and Kongu mandalam (areas in the plateau, western Tamil Nadu). The Mandalams consisted of Nadus - territories of macro-communities that had considerable autonomy (the collective self-government body in Nadu was called nattar). In Jayagondachola Manda lam, kottams are also preserved-districts larger than Nadu. In the reign of Rajaraja I, the Valanadus appeared-territorial units consisting of several nadus. There are

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It is believed that the unification of Nadu into Valanada was carried out by the central government in order to establish stricter control over the activities of large communities. However, this opinion has no direct evidence. Nadu and Kottams consisted of various types of settlements: villages (ur) belonging to Vellalas and other "peasant" castes, Brahmin settlements (brahmadeya) and towns (nagaram). Each of the settlements also had a system of self-government: villages - Urar, brahmadeyi-sabhi, towns-Nagarattar.

Inscription of the time of Rajaraja I of Tanjur*

The inscription is part of a large series of inscriptions covering the walls of the Rajara Jeshwara Temple in Tanjur. The temple was founded by Rajaraja I and named after him. Several dozen villages were assigned to him, and priests, artisans, guards, and other servants were transferred to the temple. Some dancers (devadasi) 300 was assigned. Money was also given out, distributed among the settlements, so that the inhabitants of the latter would pay interest to the temple. This label explains some of the details of one of these transactions. The annual percentage is set at 12.5. The depository is the Brahmin community. The inscription dates back to the 29th year of Rajaraja's reign, i.e. 1014/15.

An interesting figure is the "chief musician", who distributes the amount received by the temple in the form of interest among his colleagues. He has a rather flamboyant name (which even includes the name of a dynasty) and is clearly the head of an organization of musicians, in this case drummers.

translation

Greetings! With the blessing of the nattars of Manni nadu, [part of] Rajendrasimha valanada, it is set in stone that the lord musician Rajakesari Kodandarama, [also called] Jayangonda-Chola-Kadigai-marayan, [distributed], after giving sacred praise, the money ¹, which was placed at interest for [the temple of] the God Rajarajeshwar until the 29th year [of the reign] of King Sri Rajaraja, so that the interest from this money was given by the village.

During the great temple festival of the God Sri Rajarajeshwara, when flags are raised and drums are beaten during the procession, five musicians [yes] will receive 1/2 coin per person, for a total of 2 1/2 coins.

On the day when the image of [god] Adavallar is carried in front of the procession and it lasts for three days, five musicians beating the drums [da will receive] 1/2 coin each, for a total of 2 1/3 coins.

If one of the drummers is absent and one person beats the drum twice, then he [yes will get] 1 coin.

These 5 coins are given annually as long as the Moon and Sun exist, with an amount of 40 coins as a percentage [at the rate of] 1/8 of a coin from one coin [yes!].

This money, five coins, members of the Sri Viranarayana - chaturvedimangalam 2 ^sabha [located] in Rajendrasimha-valanadu, who received in the 29th year [of the reign] of Sri Rajaraja as capital 40 coins at a percentage of 1/8 of a coin from each coin per annum, let them transfer to the treasury of the temple while the Moon and Sun exist.

Kulottunga I Chola inscription from Kanchipuram**

The inscription is engraved on the western wall of the Anekathangapadam Shaivite temple in Kanchipuram, one of the political and religious centers of medieval Tamil Nadu. In other inscriptions, this temple is also called Anaipatanga.

* Translated from South Indian Inscriptions. V. II, pt II. Edited and translated by E. Hultzsch. Madras, 1892. P. 125-126.

** Translated from South Indian Inscriptions. V. II, pt III. P. 290-292.

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The inscription is dated to the 20th year of the reign of Kulottunga Choladeva. Comparison with the introductory formulas of other inscriptions allowed the epigraphist E. Hultsch to establish that Kulottunga I Chola is meant, i.e. that the inscription refers to 1090/91.

It records the king's donation of a plot of land to the temple. The land plot is exempt from taxes, so that the income from it covers the temple expenses. The boundaries of the donated land plot are described very carelessly, which may indicate that the state's land, even in the area of large cities, has not been properly measured and codified. In the same context, it is interesting that the gift excludes a very vague amount of land previously donated to another temple, apparently a local, village one.

The content of the inscription is quite typical of the Tamil epigraphy of that time. It covers one of the aspects of land relations, gives an idea of the titulature and ways of glorifying the Chola sovereigns, and also reports on the administrative division of the state.

The Tamar kottam mentioned in the inscription, according to the epigraphist, was located in the western part of the modern Kanchipuram taluk. The village of Tamar can be identified with the modern village of Damal.

translation

Greetings! When the Goddess of glory shone [because of him], the Goddess of victory craved [him]. The earth goddess was beaming [with joy]. The goddess of the flower [lotus] joined [him in marriage] ³, [he] assumed [himself] by right of inheritance ⁴ a magnificent precious crown, the fortitude of the Minavaras ⁵ was destroyed, the Vilavaras ⁶ trembled, all the kings were defeated and suffered dishonor, [Kulottunga] ruled the wheel of power.

Sri Kulottunga-Choladeva, who is majestically seated [on the throne] with [Queen] Puvana-Mulud-udayal, in the twentieth year [of his reign] uttered the sacred words: To the Sacred Temple of Mahadeva (Shiva) [under the name of] Anekatangapadam-the Lord of Kanchipuram city, located in Air kottam ⁷, in the [region] of Jayangondachola mandalam, for the payment of daily expenses ⁸ [is granted tax-exempt land, including antarayam ⁹ , as devadana ¹⁰ , west of the village of Tamar, or Neet-tavinodanallur ¹¹, located in Tamar nadu, a subdivision of Tamar Kottam.

The northern boundary is south of the Ganapati Temple; the eastern boundary extends to Kuji ¹² , which belongs to the Kumara Temple. In the south [of this land is] the temple of [goddess] Kali, and further south is the channel bed. The southern border [is] north of the field that belongs to [another] temple ¹³, and from the channel bed. The western border [is] to the east of the dam on the bank of the reservoir.

[The above] three eelm ¹⁴ of irrigated land, all exempt from taxes, except that located within one field, which is the devadana of the Bhimishvara temple, may the Shiva temple receive, which Kulottunga-Chola-Brahmarayan gladly ordered to be engraved on copper and stone ¹⁵ .

comments

¹ Kasi - "coin, money in general". In the Chola period, it was a well-defined coin that was half the weight of a large gold coin (kazhangju).

² Caturvedimangalam-letters. "the blessing of the four Vedas". When a village was presented to the brahmins, it usually received a different, lush name, most often ending in a similar phrase. Sometimes both the traditional and new names given on the occasion of the gift were used. See about this: Tsygankov Yu. Ya. Toponymika i sotsial'naya struktura rannesrednevekovogo Tamilnada [Toponymy and social structure of Early medieval Tamil Nadu]. Ocherki ekonomicheskoi i sotsial'noi istorii Indii [Essays on the Economic and Social History of India], Moscow, 1973, pp. 134-146.

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³ Refers to the goddess Lakshmi, the consort of Vishnu, and in the Shaivite tradition-one of the names of the consort of Shiva. It is depicted in some cases as standing or sitting in a lotus flower. The statement that it is "united" with Kulottunga is a hint that the latter is Vishnu or Shiva.

⁴ Since Kulottunga received the throne through the female line, it was necessary to specifically mention the legitimacy of the succession.

⁵ Minavar is one of the names of the Pandya dynasty.

⁶ Villavar is one of the names of the Chera dynasty.

⁷ Eyil - "city, fortress". Apparently, this was sometimes called Kanchipuram, the center of Kottam.

⁸ Nimanta, another form of nivanta is Tamil. The Skt form nibandha means "feeding, giving income".

⁹ Antarayam, lit. "internal levy", one of the most common taxes during the Chola and Pandya periods.

¹⁰ Tevatanam, Skt. devadana - land holdings of Hindu temples.

¹¹ Example of the double name of a village mentioned in note 2.

¹² Kuli - a small land measure, its exact size is unknown, currently it is considered to be equal to 13.4 sq. m.In this case, this is the name of a certain insignificant plot of land that belonged to the Kumara temple.

¹³ Tiruvitaiyatt-a type of temple land.

¹⁴ Veli - measure of land, in the XIX century was equal to 6.6 acres.

¹⁵ Inscriptions are usually found either on stone or on copper tablets. In this case, apparently, the inscription was engraved on both materials. However, the corresponding copper plate was not found.

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