FIRST WAVE OF SOUTHWARD MIGRATION OF INDO-IRANIANS *
In memory of I. M. Diakonov
I. The problem of the Indo-Iranian ancestral homeland
The question of the origin of the Indo-Aryans occupied not the least place among the various interests of I. M. Diakonov .
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, linguistics established a view on the localization of the Indo-European ancestral homeland in Europe. This point of view remains dominant to this day. D. Mallory consistently defends it2 . M. Gimbutas3 took a special position in the dispute . She recognized only the population of the Black Sea steppes as the ancestors of Indo - Europeans-carriers of the so-called "kurgan culture", whom she considered nomads and warlike horsemen who attacked the agricultural population of the Balkan-Danube region, destroyed their high culture and spread Indo-European languages in these areas.
T. V. Gamkrelidze and V. V. Ivanov put forward a new hypothesis 4 . Based on their supposed presence in Indo-European designations of southern flora and fauna and connections with the Near - Asian languages, they dated their ancestral homeland to the fourth millennium BC and localized it in Asia Minor, from where the Greeks moved to the west, and the Indo-Iranians-to the east. Then the Aryans from the north of the Iranian Highlands proceeded to India, and the Saks and Scythians only in the Iron Age passed through Central Asia to the Eurasian steppes after other Indo-Europeans. The authors consider Indo-Europeans who reached the Black Sea coast after wandering through the deserts of Iran, Central Asia and the Caspian region in the light of the concept of the kurgan pseudo-culture of M. Gimbutas.
The hypothesis of V. V. Ivanov and T. V. Gamkrelidze was criticized by I. M. Dyakonov5, who defended the hypothesis of the European ancestral homeland. Subsequently, based on the established connections of Indo-European languages with Caucasian ones, I. M. Dyakonov suggested that the Proto-Indo-European ancestral homeland was located in the VI millennium BC.
* This work was supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (project code 99-06-80419).
Dyakonov I. M. 1 Istoriya Medii [History of the Mussel]. M.-L., 1956; he is the same. Rec.: Masson V. M. Drevnezemledelcheskaya kul'tura Margiany [Ancient agricultural culture of Margiana]. M.-L., 1959 / / VDI. 1960. N 3. Pp. 196-203; on. On the ancestral homeland of native speakers of Indo-European dialects / / VDI. 1982. N 3-4; on. Proto-homeland of Indo-Europeans (on the book by E. E. Kuzmina " Where did the Indo-Aryans come from?", Moscow, 1994) / / VDI. 1995. N 1. pp. 123-130.
Mallory J. 2 In Search of the Indo-Europeans. L., 1989.
Gimhutas М. 3 Proto-Indo-European Culture: the Kurgan Culture during the Fifth, Fourth and Third Millennia B.C. // Indo-European and Indo- Europeans. Philadelphia, 1970. P. 155-97; eadem. The First Wave of Eurasian Steppe Pastoralists into Copper Age Europe // JIES. 1977. N 5. P. 279-305. For an evaluation of M. Gimbutas ' hypothesis, see, in particular, Hausler A. Invasionen aus den Nordpontischen Steppen nach Mitteleuropa im Neolithikum und in der Bronzezeit: Realitat oder Phantasie-produkt / / Archeologische Informationen. 1996. 19 (1, 2). P. 75- 88.
Gamkrelidze T. V., Ivanov V. V. 4 Indo-European language and Indo-Europeans. Vol. 1-11. Tbilisi, 1984.
Deacons. 5 About the ancestral homeland ... p. 3-30.
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in Asia Minor, from where they proceeded to the Balkan-Danube region, which is associated by the author with the spread of the culture of linear-ribbon ceramics .6
The original hypothesis was formulated by C. Renfrew7 . In his opinion, the spread of Indo-European dialects was associated with the arrival of a new population in the Balkans and the Danube region in the VI millennium BC, which was accompanied by the emergence of productive farming skills in Europe, as well as domesticated plants and animals from Anatolia - the center of their domestication. Critics of C. Renfrew have noted that the spread of cultural phenomena is not always accompanied by a change in language. Renfrew has now softened his position, acknowledging a number of criticisms .8 He accepts the hypothesis of I. M. Dyakonov about the oldest proto-Europeans in Asia Minor, and connects the main events of Indo-European history with the Balkan-Danube and North Black Sea areas, categorically rejecting both the eastern route of migration of Indo-Europeans through the Transcaspian, postulated by V. V. Ivanov and T. V. Gamkrelidze, and the assumption of M. Gimbutas about nomadic warriors-horsemen of the steppes as distributors indo-European dialects. Among Russian archaeologists, only E. N. Chernykh, following M. Gimbutas, continues to talk about "migrations, active military operations and seizures" of carriers of Eastern European cultures, "which are associated with the domestication of the horse and the use of the horse for horseback riding" in the V-III millennium BC. The main ramming type of detachments and armies of the XIX century " 9 .
The position of M. Gimbutas was tried to revive by D. Anthony based on the assumption of the early distribution of horse riding in the steppes in the Eneolithic era 10 . The great importance of the horse in the economy of steppe tribes of the IV-III millennium BC is beyond doubt and is confirmed by the abundance of horse bones in osteological materials. This leads most paleozoologists to conclude that the steppes were the center of horse domestication, as was established in the 60s by V. I. Tsalkin, V. I. Bibikova, and S. Bekoni. The discussion concerns only the early use of the horse. S. Beconi insisted that the Eneolithic era was the time of primary domestication, when the horse was used only as a meat animal .11 This is also accepted by some archaeologists 12 . Other researchers deny the fact of horse domestication in the Eneolithic 13 . Both of the main arguments of early horsemanship are challenged: it is proved that the interpretation of bone products from Dereyaki as psalms is erroneous, 14 and it is established that the skull of a riding stallion from Dereyki dates back to the Scythian time .15
The concept of M. Gimbutas is refuted, but discussions about the Indo-European ancestral homeland
Diakonov I М. 6 Language Contacts in the Caucasus and the Near East // When Worlds Collide. Ann Arbor, 1990. P. 53-65.
Renfrew With. 7 Archaeology and Language. N.Y., 1987.
Idem. 8 Time, Depth, Convergence, Theory and Innovation in Proto-Indo- European: "Old Europe" as a PIE Linguistic Area. Cambr., 1999.
Chernykh E. N. 9 Nekotorye vazhneyshiye aspekty i problemy izucheniya epokhi rannego metalla v Evrazii [Some most important aspects and problems of studying the Early Metal epoch in Eurasia].
Anthony D. 10 The "Kurgan Culture", Indo-European Origins and the Domestication of the Horse: a Reconsideration // Current Anthropology. 1986. 27,4. P. 291-313; idem. Horse, Wagon and Chariot. Indo-European Languages // Antiquity. 1995. 69/264. Sept. P. 554-565; Anthony D., Brown D. The Origin of Horseback Riding // Antiquity. 1991. 265/6. P. 94-98.
Bokonyi S. 11 The Role of the Horse in the Exploitation of the Steppes // The Archaeology of the Steppes. Napoli, 1994.
12 Библиографию см. Kuzmina Е. Stage of Development of Stock Breeding Husbandry and the Ecology of the Steppes in the Light of the Archaeological and Paleozoological Data // Ibid. P. 31-71; eadem. Origins of Pastoralism in the Steppes of Eurasia // Late Prehistoric Exploitation on the Eurasian Steppe. Cambr., 1999. P. 29-50.
Levin М. 13 The Origins of Horse Husbandry in the European Steppe // Ibid. P. 5-58; Rasamakin Y. The Eneolithic of the Black Sea steppe: Dynamics of Cultural and Economic Development 4500-2300 ВС // Ibid. P. 59-182; Renfrew C. All the King's Horses // Creativity in Human Evolution and Prehistory. L.-N.Y., 1998. P. 260-284.
Dietz U. 14 Zur Frage vor bronzezeitlichen Trensebelege in Europa. Bd 70. Germania, 1992.
Anthony D., Brown D. 15 Eneolithic Horse Exploitation in the Eurasian Steppes // Late Prehistoric Exploitation of the Eurasian Steppe. Cambr., 2000. P. 1-11.
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J. Nichols 16 made an attempt to revive the abandoned hypothesis about the localization of the Indo-European ancestral homeland in the deserts of Central Asia, which was abandoned in the XVIII century, without taking into account either paleogeographic or archaeological data, so that its construction is purely speculative.
V. I. Sarianidi, the author of outstanding discoveries, who identified the Bactrian-Margian archaeological complex (BMAC), accepted the Anatolian hypothesis of T. V. Gamkrelidze and V. V. Ivanov, suggesting that the ancient Iranians came to the Oka from the West, where they were in contact with the Greeks .17 He sees confirmation of this in the connections of the BMAC with the materials of Anatolia and Aegis, which are especially clearly manifested in the glyptic. However, P. Amier, who studied the Bactrian seals, noted mainly the Elamite direction of contacts; S. Salvatori argued that wide connections from the Mediterranean Sea to the Indian Ocean characterize the entire era of the end of the third and beginning of the second millennium BC and are not related to ethnic migrations; the role of cultural and trade contacts was argued by many authors, especially K. Lamberg-Karlovsky 18 . In the afterword to V. I. Sarianidi's book, D. Mallory emphasizes that the question of the ancestral homeland of the Iranians can only be solved as part of the Indo-European problem.
The same essential remark applies to the works of some Indian historians, who, in their struggle against the supposedly colonizing concepts of European scholars, supporters of the European ancestral homeland, try to link the Harappan culture with the Indo-Aryans, forgetting that it was European scholars who placed the ancestral homeland in India in the XVIII century, and ignore the further achievements of Indo-European studies. This discussion is reviewed by E. Bryan 19 .
The steppe ancestral homeland of Indo-Iranians to the east of other Indo-Europeans was proposed at the end of the 19th century by O. Schrader, 20 and was supported by the majority of Indo-Iranists-A. Christensen, E. Hertzfeld, V. Brandenstein, H. Bailey, R. Hauschild, M. Mayerhofer, R. Fry, T. Barrow, M. Boyce, A. Parpala, J. Harmatta, etc. In Russian science, this hypothesis was consistently defended by I. M. Diakonov, M. M. Diakonov, V. N. Toporov, I. Aliev, I. M. Oransky, V. I. Abaev, G. M. Bongard-Levin, E. A. Grantovsky, T. Ya. Elizarenkova, B. G. Gafurov, M. A. Dandamaev, and others. They are native speakers of the Srubnaya and Andronovo cultures (or only the latter), sometimes attributing their genesis to the Eneolithic pit culture.
Developing the ideas of I. M. and M. M. Dyakonov and other supporters of the steppe ancestral homeland of the Indo-Iranians, I tried to substantiate the Eastern European genesis of the Indo-Iranian culture and identify the ancestors of the Indo-Aryans with the Andronovo cultural community, without denying the Iranian affiliation of the log culture, which was supported by I. M. Dyakonov 21 . The decisive arguments in favor of the migration of Indo-Aryans to the Indian subcontinent are:
1. The presence of a large number of borrowed vocabulary in Sanskrit, primarily cultural terms related to agriculture, irrigation, handicrafts, pottery, as well as with the designation of local flora and fauna 22, the presence in the Vedic period in the Russian language of ancient times.
Nirhols J. 16 The Epicenter of the Indo-European Linguistic Spread // Archaeology and Language. L., 1997. P. 122-148.
Sarianidi V. 17 Margiana and Protozoroastrism. Athens, 1998.
18 Amiet P. La glyptique transelamite de Chypre a la Bactriane. Les sceaux du Proche-Orient. P., 1997. Salvatori S. Protohistoric Margiana: on a Recent Contribution // Revista di archeologia. 1995. XIX. S. 38-55; Lamberg-Karlovski C. Third Millennium Structure and Process from the Euphrates to the Indus and from the Oxus to the Indian Ocean //Oriens Antiquus. 1987. 25. P. 189-219; idem. Beyond the Tigris and Euphrates: Bronze Age Civilizations. Yerusalem, 1996.
19 Bryant Е. The Indo-Arian Invasion Debate: The Logic of the Response // JIES. 1999. 32. P. 205-230.
20 Schrader О. Reallexikon der Indogermanischen Altertumskunde. Strassburg, 1901. Библиографию см. Грантовский Э.А. Ранняя история иранских племен Передней Азии. М., 1970; Mallory. In Search...; Кузьмина Е.Е. Откуда пришли индоарии? М., 1994.
21 Дьяконов. Прародина...; Diakonoff I. Two Recent Studies of Indo-Iranian Origins // JAOS. 1995. 115/3. P. 473-475.
Kuiper F. 22 Aryans in the Rigveda. Studies in Indo-European. Leiden, 1991.
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Aryan society of representatives of the local population with non-Indo-Iranian names.
2. The high level of agricultural civilization of Harappa, which is not comparable with the economic and cultural type of Aryan pastoralists recorded in Vedic literature23 .
3. Localization of the Indo-Aryan ancestral homeland in the steppes, which is justified by the connection of Finno-Ugric languages not only with Iranian, but also with Indo-Aryan24 .
4. The production of ceramics by the ancestors of the Indo-Aryans without a potter's wheel, which is repeatedly attested in Vedic texts, 25 which automatically excludes from the consideration of the ancestral homeland all the cultures of the Indo-Central Asian region, where the circle was used in the III millennium BC and earlier.
5. The great significance in the culture of Indo-Iranians of the common Indo-European horse culture26, the most widespread and earliest evidence of which has been recorded in the Eastern European steppes since the fourth millennium BC.
6. The great role of horse-drawn chariots and the allocation of a social group of chariot warriors among Indo-Iranians. The inventor of the chariot was the creator god Tvashtar, the divine creator Vishvakarman was a carpenter, as well as the celestial masters Ribphu; in the Rig Veda, the chariot making is compared with the work of the poet-rishi; an identical set of charioteer weapons is described in the Vedas, Avesta (in the late Mihr Yashta, reflecting, however, the Indo-Iranian cult of Mithra and the realities of the most ancient era) and in the text from Nuzi to Mitanni 27 .
Interest in the Indo-Iranian problem was revived by the discovery of mounds in the Sintashta burial ground in the Urals with the graves of chariot warriors buried together with chariots, pairs of harness horses, psalms for their harnessing and a set of weapons, as well as the mapping of psalms by K. F. Smirnov and myself in a wide range of steppes from Mycenae to Kazakhstan and the allocation of a whole layer in the Novokumak chronological horizon monuments of the Urals and Northern Kazakhstan, where they were previously discovered by G. B. Zdanovich and identified by him as the Early Iron Age Petrovsky type (burial grounds Ulyubai, Kenes, Berlik, Bestamak) 28 .
Rau W. 23 Zur Vedischen Altertumskunde. Wiesbaden, 1983; Elizarenkova T. Ya. "Rigveda" - the great beginning of Indian literature and culture. Mandalas I-IV. Moscow, 1989. pp. 426-453; ona. The world of ideas of the Aryans of the Rig Veda. Mandalas V-VIII. Moscow, 1995. pp. 452-486; Elizarenkova T. Ya., Toporov V. N. The world of things according to the Rig Veda // Ibid., pp. 487-525.
Kuzmina. 24 Where did the Indo-Aryans come from?; Grantovsky E. A. Iran and Iranians before the Achaemenids, Moscow, 1998; Helimski E. The Southern Neighbors of Finno-Ugrians: Iranians or an Extinct Branch of Aryans ("Andronovo Aryans") / / Finnisch-Ugrisch Sprachen in Kontakt. Maastricht, 1996. P. 117-125.
Rau W. 25 Topferei und Tongeschierr im Vedischen Indien. Wiesbaden, 1972; Grantovsky E. A." Seriya keramika"," rasisnaya keramika " i indo-irantsy ["Series of ceramics", "painted ceramics" and Indo-Iranians]. Etnicheskie problemy istorii Tsentral'noi Azii v drevnosti [Ethnic problems of the history of Central Asia in ancient times], Moscow, 1981, pp. 245-272. Iran and Iranians before the Achaemenids, Moscow, 1998; Kuzmina. Where did the Indo-Aryans come from?
Koppers W. 26 Pferdeopfer und Pferdekult der Indogermanen / / Die Indogermanen-und Germanenfrage. 1936. 4. S. 279-410; Ivanov V. V. Experience in interpreting the oldest ritual and mythological terms formed from asva - "horse" / / Problems of the history of languages and culture of the peoples of India. Moscow, 1971. pp. 75-138; Elizarenkova, Axes. Mir veshov... P. 487-525; Kovalevskaya V. B. Kon ' i vsadnik [Horse and Rider], Moscow, 1976; Kuzmina E. E. Rasprostranenie konevodstva i kul'ta konya u iranoyazychnykh plemen Srednoi Azii i drugikh narodov Stary Sveta [Horse breeding and horse worship among Iranian-speaking tribes of Central Asia and other peoples of the Old World]. Origins of Pastoralism...
Elizarenkova Street. 27" Rig Veda " ... p. 451; it is the same. Мир идей... С. 470; Zaccagnini С. Pferde und Streitwagen in Nuzi // Jahresbericht des Instituts fur Vorgeschichte der Universitat Frankfurt am Main. 1997. Frankfurt, 1978.
Sintashta burial ground and the problem of early Indo-Iranian tribes / / SA. 1977. N 4. pp. 53-73; Genning V. F.. Zdanovich G. B., Genning V. V. Sintashta. Chelyabinsk, 1992; Smirnov K. F., Kuzmina E. E. The origin of Indo-Iranians in the light of new archaeological discoveries, Moscow, 1977; Zdanovich G. B., Bronze Age of the Ural-Kazakhstan steppes. Sverdlovsk, 1988; Kalieva S. S., Kolbin G. V., Logvin V. N. Burial ground near the settlement of Bestamak. Petropavlovsk, 1992. pp. 57-59; Logvin V. N. On the structure of the Bestamak community / / Integrated societies of Central Eurasia III-I millennium BC Chelyabinsk, 1999. pp. 115-116.
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II. Formation of monuments of the Novokumak chronological horizon
Based on the only stratified monument - mound 25 of the Novokumak burial ground, K. F. Smirnov and I established that the monuments of the Novokumak horizon occupy an intermediate position between the catacomb culture and the developed Andronovskaya Alakul type. It was assumed that carriers of several Eastern European cultures that migrated from the West were involved in their formation: the catacomb culture (in its late manifestation - the culture of polyvalic ceramics), the Abashevskaya culture (part of the European corded ceramics culture), and the Poltavka culture, which is a late derivative of the pit culture of the Volga and Ural regions.
Currently, a large number of elite military burials with weapons and psalms have been identified on the Don, they are attributed to the Don-Volga Abashev culture or the late Pokrovsko-Abashev culture. In the Volga region, military burials are assigned to the Potapov type, which is considered a genetic precursor of early log buildings .29
The source base of the study in the Urals consists of 18 settlements, seven of which have been excavated: Malokizilskoye, Sintashta, Arkaim, Ustye, Olgino, Kuysak, and Alandskoye. Only Malokizilskoe belongs to the Abashev culture, the rest - Sintashta. 12 necropolises were identified, of which five were excavated: Sintashta, Krivoe Ozero, Bolypekaragansky, Kamenny Ambar, Sun-2 and three burial grounds in Western Kazakhstan: Zhaman-Kargala, Tanabergen, Imangazy-Karasu 30 . Burial grounds are related to settlements: Sintashta - settlement and burial ground, Arkaim-Bolypekaragansky, Ustye-Sun-2, Olgino-Stone Barn, Chernorechye-3-Crooked Lake. In the Urals, 20 mounds containing 192 graves have been excavated, half of them, including all the main burials, were looted in ancient times, which makes it difficult to interpret them. Chariot complexes, wheel tracks, psalms, and horse burials were found in 27 burials in the Urals (14% of all burials). These are large, usually central graves with a complex under-burial structure and a burial of an adult male, which contains a set of weapons: arrows, a complex bow, an axe, a spear, a dagger, a mace, pommels, a shell, a whip, as well as skulls and legs of cattle, and dog burials are frequent .31
New excavations of stratified sites allow us to clarify our understanding of the formation and development of these complexes. On the Don, the Don-Abashevskaya catacomb culture is confirmed to predate; in the Kondrashkin mound, the oldest burial was of 2 catacomb culture, the burial of 1 charioteer was made later, and the latest grave of 3 is a log house; in the Filatov mound, burial 2 combines Abashevskaya and catacomb ceramics, the main burial 6
Pryakhin A.D., Matveev Yu. P. 29 Kurgan near the village of Bogoyavlenskoe / / SA. 1991. N 1. pp. 262-270; Pryakhin A.D., Besedin V. I. Horse bridle of the middle bronze of the Eastern European steppe and forest-steppe / / RA. 1998. N 3. pp. 22-35; Pryakhin A.D., Besedin V. I. Matveev Yu. P. Kondrashkinsky kurgan. Voronezh, 1989; Pryakhin A.D., Matveev Yu. P., Razuvaev Yu. D. Usmansky kurgan. Voronezh, 1990; Pryakhin A.D., Moiseev N. B., Besedin V. I. Selezni-2 kurgan of the Don-Volga Abashev culture. Voronezh, 1998; Matveev Yu. P., Pryakhin A.D. Pogrebeniya vooinykh-kolesnichikh na territorii lesostepnogo Podonya i periodizatsiya pamyatnikov epokhi bronzy Dono - Volzhsko-Uralskoy lesostepi [Burials of warriors-charioteers on the territory of the forest-steppe Don region and periodization of monuments of the Bronze Age of the Don-Volga-Ural Forest-steppe]. Dona. Voronezh, 1996; Sinyuk A. L., Pogorelov V. I. Kugan No. 16 of the Vlasov burial ground // Burial complexes of the Bronze Age of forest-steppe Eurasia. Ufa, 1993. pp. 6-31; Vasiliev I. B., Kuznetsov P. F., Semenova A. P. Potapovsky kurgan burial ground of Indo-Iranian tribes on the Volga. Samara, 1994; they are the same. Monuments of the Potapovsky type in the forest-steppe Volga region / / Ancient Indo-Iranian cultures of the Volga-Ural region. Samara, 1995, pp. 5-37.
Tkachev V. V. 30 K probleme proiskhozhdeniya petrovskoy kul'tury [Approach to the problem of the origin of the Petrovsky culture]. Orenburg, 1998, pp. 38-56.
31. Epimakhov A.V. 31 Pogrebal'naia obryadnost ' naseleniya Yuzhnogo Zaural'ya epokhi srednoi bronzy [Funeral rites of the population of the Southern Trans-Urals of the Middle Bronze Age]... Candidate of Historical Sciences. Novosibirsk, 1998, p. 21; Nelin D. V. Armament and military affairs of the population of the Southern Trans-Urals and Northern Kazakhstan. .. Candidate of Historical Sciences. Ufa, 1999. p. 7, 12, 16; Zdanovich D. G. Sintashtinskoe obshchestvo: sotsial'nye osnovy "kvazigorodskoy" kul'tury [Sintashtin Society: social foundations of "quasi-urban" culture]. Chelyabinsk, 1997. Table 3.
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broken entrance log grave 7 ; in Pichaevsky kurgan main burial - with chariots and psalms, inlet - log grave 32 .
On the Lower Volga, a layer of catacomb monuments has been identified, which stratigraphically precede the log houses 33 . In the Southern Urals, in Aleksandrovka, the coexistence of the Poltavka and Abashevsky vessels is established. In the Urals, at the settlement of Kuysak, the lower layer ceramics are Yamno - Poltavkin, in the middle layer they are mixed with Abashevskaya, and in the upper layer Sintashta ware is presented, reflecting the synthesis of the initial components. On Ileka, in the burial grounds of Zhaman-Kargala, Tanabergen, Imangazy-Karasu, the main ones were single Poltavka burials, the inlet ones were Sintashta burials, located in a circle and violating the main ones. In mounds 11 and 24 of the Bolshekaragansky burial ground, the Poltavka and Sintashta vessels coexist, and the later pottery of mounds 20 and 22 is close to the Petrovskaya and Early Rubnaya ones .34
Important data have been obtained that make it possible to distinguish two stages within the Novokumak horizon. In the Ustye settlement, the earlier settlement belongs to the Sintashta type; it has an oval plan and is overlain by a later rectangular settlement belonging to the Petrovsky type; the same pattern is traced from aerial photographs at several other settlements; the same development from Sintashta to Petrovsky type is established in the burial grounds of Krivoe Ozero, Stepnoye, Kamenny Ambar, Bolshekaragansky, Tanabergen 35 . Thus, the formation of complexes of the Novokumakas horizon occurred as a result of assimilation in the Urals of tribes belonging to a wide range of European cultures: steppe - Yamno-Poltavka and catacomb and more northern Abashevskaya. Their role in different regions was different, which led to regional specifics. The process of their consolidation, apparently, was long and assumed a period of bilingualism of the population, so it seems incorrect to talk about the purely Aryan identity of the Sintashti people.
Contrary to the opinion of G. B. Zdanovich, the participation of the local substrate population in these processes has not yet been revealed 36 . At the next-Petrovsky stage, an accident occurred
Pryakhin et al 32 Kondrashkinsky kurgan...; Matveev et al. Burials of charioteer warriors ... pp. 76-78;
Sinyuk et al. Some aspects ... pp. 46-49; Moiseev N. B., Efimov K. Yu. Pichaevsky kurgan. Ancient Indo-Iranian cultures of the Volga-Ural region. Samara, 1995, pp. 72-80.
Malov N. M. Filipchenko V. V. 33 Pamyatniki katakombnoy kul'tury Nizhni Povolzhya [33 Monuments of the catacomb culture of the Lower Volga region]. St. Petersburg, 1995, Issue 4, pp. 52-61.
34 Potapovsky kurgan burial ground... p. 80; Malyutina T. S., Zdanovich G. B. Kuysak-fortified settlement of the proto-urban civilization of the Southern Trans-Urals // Russia and the East: problems of interaction. Ch. V. Kn. 1. Chelyabinsk, 1995. pp. 100-106; Tkachev V. V. On the kurgan stratigraphy of the Poltavka and Sintashta burials in the steppe Urals / / XIII Ural Archaeological Meeting. Ufa, 1996. p. 64; onk. K probleme... P. 42; Batalov S. G., Grigoriev S. A., Zdanovich G. B. Funerary complexes of the Bronze Age of the Bolshekaragansky burial ground // Materials on archeology and ethnography of the Southern Urals. Chelyabinsk, 1996, pp. 86-88.
Vinogradov N. B. 35 Chronological content and cultural affiliation of Sintashta-type monuments in the Southern Trans-Urals. Chelyabinsk, 1995. N 1. P. 17; onk. Sintashta and Petrovsky antiquities of the Bronze Age of the Southern Urals and Northern Kazakhstan in the context of cultural interactions. Chelyabinsk, 1999; batanina I. M. Remote sensing methods during archaeological research in the reserve Arkaim // Culture of the ancient peoples of the Eurasian steppes and the phenomenon protocity civilization of the southern Urals. Issue 2. Chelyabinsk, 1995. pp. 105-106; Zdanovich G. B. Arkaim-a cult complex of the Middle Bronze Age of the Southern Trans-Urals / / RA. 1997. N 2. P. 59; Zdanovich G. B., Zdanovich D. G. Proto-urban civilization "Countries of cities" of the Southern Trans-Urals (experience of modeling the relationship to antiquity) / / Russia and the East ... Part V. Book 1. P. 50; Nelin. Armament... P. 17; Kostyukov V. P., Epimakhov A.V. Novy pamyat drevnoi bronzy v Yuzhnom Zauralie [A new monument of ancient Bronze in the Southern Trans-Urals]. Samara, 1995. p. 173; Batalov, Grigoriev, Zdanovich. Funerary complexes ... pp. 86-88; Tkachev V. V. On the correlation of Sintashta and Petrovsky burial complexes in the steppe Urals / / Russia and the East ... Part V. Book 1. pp. 168-170; on. On the problem of the origin of the Petrovskaya culture. pp. 42-46; Epimakhov A.V. Kurgan burial ground Sun II-necropolis of the fortified settlement Ustye... Chelyabinsk, 1996. p. 18.
Matveev A.V. 36 The first Andronovtsy in the forests of the Trans-Urals. Novosibirsk, 1998.
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consolidation of the culture, the carriers of which penetrated into Northern and Central Kazakhstan and Central Asia, which reflects the beginning migration of the early Aronian population.
Monuments of the Novokumak horizon are characterized by similar features: the syncretic nature of culture and the appearance of chariots and weapons of charioteers. K. F. Smirnov and I suggested in 1977 that the impulse of ethno-cultural perestroika was the migration to the East of carriers of several cultures in which the prerequisites for future innovations were already formed, which was stimulated by contacts of this population with carriers of more developed cultures of the Danube region and the Caucasus. 1991 put forward the idea of the Volga-Ural focus of cultural genesis; it is shared by A. T. Sinyuk, who believes that a new culture came to the Don from the Urals in its current form .37 A number of Voronezh archaeologists disagree with this, who emphasize the absence in the Urals of many features already represented in the West in the catacomb and Abashev cultures.
One of the reasons for migration to the east could be an ecological crisis - a sharp climate change. Another and probably the main incentive for advancing to the Urals was the crisis of the Carpathian metallurgical center, which previously supplied the steppe with metal, which required the development of local copper deposits. Apparently, the development of the largest Kargaly deposit 38 in the Southern Urals began in the late mining era . Several small but easily accessible and rich copper mines were also discovered in the vicinity of the Sintashta settlements; in all the settlements, metalworking was the main occupation of the population .39 It was the transformation of the Urals into a center of metallurgy and metalworking that contributed to the fact that the Urals (not the Volga and Don!) it became a hotbed of cultural genesis.
All the Sintashta fortresses under study show traces of numerous fires and alterations, and all the central military graves were robbed in ancient times, which indicates an unstable situation in the region. The need to protect the mines and the products of metallurgists led to the construction of fortresses, each of which was a production center. The need to organize public works for the construction of fortresses, mining and metal processing led to the allocation of a social group in the community that served as organizers and "distributors" who carried out the exchange of metal. Apparently, the same group performed military functions. An important task of the emerging elite was the ethnic consolidation of the collective. The allocation of a military stratum stimulated the development of military affairs and the introduction of chariot tactics of combat.
Fortresses have a regular layout and represent a concentrically inscribed oval, circle or square (late) in the plan. External and internal walls are constructed of wood and soil and sometimes reinforced from the outside with a stone plinth (Olgino, Aland), have gates and are surrounded by a moat. The inner square is divided by radial or perpendicular streets, with 40 free spaces in the center . This layout is preserved at the Petrovsky stage: Kulevchi-3, Ustye, Semiozernoye, Petrovka-2, Novonikolskoye, Bogolyubovo 41 . The origin of the concentric-radial architecture of fortresses is unclear. According to the plan, they resemble Neko-
Bochkarev V. S. 37 Volgo-Uralskiy ochag kul'turogeneza epokhi pozdnoi bronzy [The Volga-Ural focus of Cultural genesis in the Late Bronze Age]. Sotsiogenez i kul'turogenez v istoricheskom aspekte [Sociogenesis and cultural genesis in the historical aspect]. St. Petersburg, 1991; Sinyuk. The Bronze Age...
Morgunova N. L., Kravtsov A. Yu 38 Monuments of ancient pit culture on the Ileka River. Yekaterinburg, 1994; Chernykh. Some of the most important aspects...
39 Zaikov V. V. Mineralno-raw material base of monuments of the Bronze Age in the Southern Urals ("Country of Cities") / / Russia and the East... Part V. Kn. 2. pp. 147-152; Grigoriev S. A. Drevnyaya metallurgiya Yuzhnogo Urala: Avtoref. diss... Candidate of Historical Sciences, Moscow, 1994.
Sintashta...; Vinogradov. Chronological content...; Arkaim/Edited by G. B. Zdanovich. Chelyabinsk, 1995; Zdanovich G. B., Zdanovich D. G. Proto-urban civilization...; Malyutina et al. Kuysak...
Vinogradov N. B. 41 Yuzhnoye Zauralie i Severny Kazakstan v rannealakulskom period [Southern Trans-Urals and Northern Kazakhstan in the Early Alakul period]. Khronologicheskoe soderzhanie...; Evdokimov V. V. Naselenie stepnogo Pritobol'ya v epokhu bronzy [Population of the steppe Pritobol region in the Bronze Age]. Kiev, 1984; Zdanovich. The Bronze Age...
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some settlements in Anatolia, the Balkans, the Danube region, and the Ukraine 42, but it is more likely that their plan goes back to the Vedic Aryan camp, which was a circle made up of wagons facing the entrance inside the circle where the cattle are located 43 . The plan of the Sintashta settlements with a dedicated center and two or three circles of inscribed walls corresponds to the Indo-Iranian model of the universe, embodied in the idea of the Vara Avesta: an ideal settlement built by the first ancestor and king Yima (Yama) in the ancestral homeland and repeated in the Mitannian fortress of Kishesu44 . The ideological understanding of this layout as a model of the universe confirms its use in the construction of Sintashta mounds, where the grave of a charioteer warrior is located in the center, and ordinary and children's graves are placed in a circle bounded by a moat. This sacred plan was later reproduced in the Arjan mound and the religious architecture of Khorezm and Bactria. However, the assumption that Arkaim was a cult center is unlikely: it is an ordinary village with traces of industrial activity. The complex layout of settlements and the wide scope of metalworking led G. B. and D. G. Zdanovich to conclude that the Urals developed a proto-urban civilization comparable to the Ancient Eastern one, and Arkaim was a city with a population of up to three thousand people - professional artisans and military elite. Further studies have shown that their numbers are overestimated several times. There are no traces of property stratification in the settlement; metalworking is still very primitive .45 The main occupations of the population were metalworking and local cattle breeding. Large and small cattle, horses, and a small number of pigs and two-humped camels were bred .46
In military burials, along with weapons, there are adzes, sometimes chisels: so the soldiers were carpenters - builders of chariots. In the burials in Kamenny Granary (mound-2/12, 17), Sun-2 (mounds 4/1, 5/1) and Bestamak, together with arrows, pieces of ore, slag, copper ingots, and nozzles were found, indicating that the soldiers were engaged in metalworking .47
Consequently, in the Sintashta era, there was no specialization of craft or property differentiation, and the abundance of equipment and rich animal sacrifices reflected only the high social status of charioteers. The situation was similar among the Vedic Aryans: war, metallurgy, carpentry, weaving, and poetry were prestigious occupations .48 Unfortunately, in the Andronovo culture, unlike the catacomb and Abashevskaya cultures, there are no priests-singers. But the cult of the horse and chariot is much more clearly reflected.
III. Chariots of the Eurasian steppes
In the Urals, in the Sintashta and Petrovsky burials, the chariot complex is presented in full: chariots, burials of two horses and psalms. On the Volga, so far only the discovery of a wheel in mound 6/4 in Utevka is known, there are also burials of pairs of horses in Potapovka, but more often only skulls and legs of horses and psalms are found.,
Merpert N. Ya. 42 On the question of the oldest round-plan settlements in Eurasia // Russia and the East... 4. V. Kn. I. S. 116-119.
Rau W. 43 Zur Vedischen Altertumskunde; Кузьмина. Where did the Indo-Aryans come from?
Elizarenkova Street. 44 Mir idei...; Steblin-Kamensky I. M. Arysko-uralskie svyazi mifa o Yime [Aryan-Ural connections of the Yime Myth]. History of the Mussel. P. 185. The problem of VAR was also considered by L. L. Gurevich, K. Jettmar, B. Brentjes, I. V. Pyankov and others.
Epimakhov. 45 Funerary rituals... p. 27; Grigoriev. Ancient metallurgy...
Kosintsev P. A. 46 Zhivotniye v pogrebalnom obryade naseleniya Uralo - Povolzhya v nachale II thys. B.C. [Animals in the funeral rite of the population of the Ural-Volga region at the beginning of the II thys. B.C.] / / Integrated Societies of Central Eurasia in the III-I thys. B.C. Chelyabinsk, 1999. pp. 255-257; Lavrutin Yu. A., Spiridonova E. A. Osnovnye geologo-paleoecological events of the late Pleistocene and Holocene end on the eastern slope Southern Urals// Natural systems of the Southern Urals. Chelyabinsk, 1999. p. 101.
New Monument... p. 167; Epimakhov. Kurgan burial ground ... pp. 26, 29, 35, 40. Fig. 11; Kalieva et al. Mogilnik... pp. 57-59.
Elizarenkova Street. 48 The world of ideas...; she and others. The world of things...
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On the Don, I know of only one find: in the Pichaevsky mound, there are no burials of pairs of horses, instead only animal skulls and legs and psalms on the principle of pars pro toto 49 are presented in the burials . This suggests that the Urals was the center of the invention of chariots and their cult.
Chariots are recorded by the prints of wheels with spokes in the Urals in the burial grounds of Sintashta (burials 5, 12, 16, 19, 28, 30 and, possibly, burial 14 of mound C-I), Stone Barn (graves 6, 8), Sun-2 (mounds 4/1, 5/2, 11/2), Crooked Lake, Vetlyanka (mound 14/6) in Northern Kazakhstan in the burial grounds of Ulyubai, Kenes (mound 3/5), Berlik-2 (mound 2/1, 10) and in Central Kazakhstan in the burial ground of Satanus (mound I) 50 .
The diameter of a wheel with a protruding hub and ten to twelve spokes is determined from 0.9-1 m in Sintashta to 1-1. 2 m in Satana, the distance between the wheels (track) is 1.2-1.45 m, the rim is 4 cm wide, the spokes are rectangular and square in cross section, measuring 3 x 3.5 cm to 3.5 x 4.5 cm. Based on the findings in Satan, a rectangular body frame of 1.2 x 0.67 m (or 1.6 x 0.6 m), fragments of a rim with a round spoke, a protruding hub and a red leather tire fixed with bone studs are reconstructed.
From these remnants, it is impossible to reliably reconstruct the type of chariot. The reconstructions proposed by W. F. Henning, D. Anthony, and N. V. Vinogradov were justly criticized by M. Littauer and J. R. R. Tolkien. Krauel 51 . The difficulty of reconstruction is also due to the fact that the size of the chamber sometimes did not allow the whole chariot to be placed and it was put in disassembled form or only parts were left. So, in the Stone Barn in mound 2/8, only one wheel is revealed, and of the four psalms, one is an imitation.
Where were the chariots invented, which played a revolutionary role in the history of military affairs in the Old World? M. Littauer and J. The Krauel defend their old view that the chariots on the steppe were imitations of Middle Eastern ones. They base their conclusion on two incorrect assumptions: first, following M. Gimbutas and D. Anthony believes that there were horsemen in the steppe from the Eneolithic period, and secondly, following E. V. Izbitzer, believing that two-wheeled carts were not known there in the III millennium BC.
However, two-wheeled vehicles were found in pit and catacomb burials Storozhevaya Grave, Pervokonstantinovka kurgan 1/8, Maryevka Kurgan 11/27, Lola, etc., clay models are also known, for example, from the Three Brothers mound and in the collection of V. A. Safronova. Two-wheeled carts with solid or slotted wheels (so-called crossbar wheels) are depicted on petroglyphs of Kazakhstan 53 .
Vasiliev et al 49 Monuments... P. 5. Burials of pairs of horses were also found on the Volga in the Krutenky kurgan and Uvarovsky burial ground of the Pokrovsky type and Early Rube (Kuzmina. Distribution of horse breeding ... pp. 28-52. Moiseev et al. Pichaevsky kurgan... p. 75; Pryakhin et al. Novousmansky burial ground... p. 73- (two foals; skulls and legs): in Filatovka (Sinyuk et al. Some aspects... p. 49) and Selezni-2 (Pryakhin et al. Selezni-2... p. 25).
Genning et al 50 Sintashta ... p. 130, 132, 149, 153, 163, 165, 167, 183, 184, 203, 205, 209, 210, 214, 215, 276. Rice. 56, 72, 78, 80, 91, 93, 94, 106- 108; 111, 116; Kostyukov et al. New Monument ... pp. 162-163. Fig. 9; Epimakhov. Kurgan burial ground ... pp. 26,29, 33. Fig. 4; Vinogradov. Chronological content... p. 120; Anthony D " Vinogradov N. Birth of the Chariot / / Archeology. 1995. March-april. P. 36-41; Anthony. Horse, Wagon and Chariot... P. 554-565; Gorbunov V. S., Dinisov I. V., Ismagilov R. B. New materials on the Bronze Age of the Southern Urals. Ufa, 1990. p. 32; Zdanovich. Bronze Age ... pp. 71-76, 138-140. Fig. 29, 2-6; 31, 10-12; Tkachev A. A. Kul'tura naseleniya Tsentralnogo Kazakhstana v epokhu razvitii bronzy: Avtoref. dis. ... kand. ist. nauk. Moscow, 1991. pp. 10, 11; Evdokimov V. V. Raboty Karagandinsky otryada [Culture of the population of Central Kazakhstan in the era of developed bronze]. AO for 1980. Moscow, 1981. P. 434; Novozhenov V. A. Rock images of carts in Central and Central Asia. Almaty, 1994. pp. 158-160. Fig. 97.
Genning et al 51 Sintashta...; Anthony, Vinogradov. Birth of the Chariot... , Littauer М., Crouwel J. The Origin of the Chariot // Antiquity. 1996. 70/270. Dec. P. 934- 939.
Burials with wagons of the steppe zone of Eastern Europe and the North Caucasus of the III-II millennium BC: Author's abstract of the dissertation of the Candidate of Historical Sciences. St. Petersburg, 1993.
Novozhenov. 53 Rock carvings ... pp. 89,91, 133, 140. Fig. 51.
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In the Novonikolaevka burial ground of the Nizhnemikhailovo culture, a two-wheeled cart with crossbar wheels is depicted on the ochre stone floor of the burial site, if I interpret this figure correctly .54 Similar lightweight wheels are represented on seals in Anatolia, on a cylinder in Hissar III in Iran, and on a silver bowl from Afghanistan, and are considered as a transitional type to the wheel with spokes 55 .
The Near-Asian origin of steppe chariots was recognized by V. V. Trifonov56, referring to the images of two-wheeled chariots drawn by equids on the Syro-Palestinian seals. The latter date from the XVIII-XVI centuries BC57, but the images are too sketchy.
Fundamentally important new data on the history of transport were obtained thanks to excavations in Syria of a large city of the IV-II millennium BC. Tell Brak-ancient Nagar, the capital of the Hurrian dynasty at the end of the III millennium BC, and in the XVI century BC-an important trade center of the state of Mitanni, where along with the Hurrian population lived Indo-Aryans are horse breeders, as evidenced by Indo-Iranian horse-breeding terms in the Hittite treatise of the Mitanni Kikulli, Indo-Iranian names of the gods and rulers of Mitanni in documents from Nuzi, the Amarna archive in Egypt, and in new texts and seals from Tell Brak with the names of kings Artashumarra and Tushratta 58 . The dominance of Indo-Iranians in the Hurrian environment is usually associated with the spread of horse breeding, training skills, light combat horse chariots and compound bows, and with the creation of military - aristocratic units of marianna - horse-breeding charioteers who were in the royal service. In the 15th century BC, Mitanni played an important role in the ancient East: Parattarna subdued Aleppo and Alalakh, his son Shaushtattar controlled Cilicia and Ashur, the grandson of Artatam married his daughter to Pharaoh Thutmose IV, and in the 14th century BC Akhenaten's wife was the daughter of Tushratta, whose rich dowry included chariots with gold coins. jewelry, six thousand arrows, and ironwork. In 1332 BC, the Hittite king Suppiluliuma sheltered the son of the murdered Tushratta conspirator Shattiwaza, married him to his daughter, made a treaty with him, sealed with the names of Hittite and Hurrian gods, at the end of which the Indo-Iranian gods Indra and Mitra, Varuna and Nasatya are mentioned, and helped the fugitive regain his throne .59 Under King Vasashatta, the kingdom of Mitanni was defeated by the Assyrian king Adad-Nerari. Nagar and other cities were destroyed. According to dendrochronology, this happened around 1300 BC.
I. M. Diakonov specifically dealt with the Mitanni problem and argued with M. Mayerhofer about the role of Indo-Aryans in the spread of horse breeding and chariots in the Middle East 60 . New materials from Tell Brak allow us to move forward in solving this problem. A caravanserai and burial site were discovered in the layers of the third and early second millennia BC
Rasamakin. 54 The Eneolithic... P. 147. Fig. 3,56.
Littauer M.. Crouwel J. 55 The Origin and Diffusion of the Cross-Bar Wheel // Antiquity. 1977. 51/202. P. 61. Fig. 21; Amiet P. Antiquities of Bactria and Outer Iran in the Louvre Collection // Bactria and Ancient Oasis Civilization from the Sands of Afghanistan. Venice, 1988. P. 159-180. Fig. 6.
Trifonov, V. A. 1996, pp. 60-64.
Porada E. 57 Corpus of Ancient Near Eastern Seals. Meriden, 1948; Moorey P. The Earliest Near Eastern Spoked Wheels and Their Chronology // Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society for 1968. 1969. XXXIV. P. 430-432; idem. The Emergence of the Light Horse-Drawn Chariot in the Near East 2000-1500 ВС // World Archaeology. 1986. 18(2). P.196-215.
Oates D., Oates J 58 ., McDonald Н. Excavations at Tell Brak 1. Cambr., 1997; Hrozny B. L' entrainement des chevaux chez les anciens Indo-europeens d'apres un texte mitannien hittite provenant du 14 siecle av. J. Ch. // Archi'v orientalni. 3. Des.; Zaccagnini. Pferde...
Jankowska N. 59 The Mitannian Sattiwasa in Arraphe // Studies in Honor of I.М. Diakonoff. Warminster, 1982. P. 138-149.
Dyakonov I. M. 60 Aryans in the Middle East: the End of the Myth / / VDI. 1970. N4. pp. 39-53; on. Prarodina...; Mayrhofer M. Die Indo-Arier in alten Vorderasien. Wiesbaden, 1966; idem. Die Arier im Vorderen Orient-ein Mythos? Wien, 1974.
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donkey, 102 cart models, 191 figures of equids and numerous images of them on seals, analyzed by D. Oates 61 .
According to written sources and images on seals, it is known that carts belonged to gods and kings and were used for ceremonial and cult purposes. Among the models of carts from Tell Brak, four-wheeled ones predominate, harnessed by two or four animals using a yoke and drawbar, both with an open and covered top. 70 % of two-wheeled carriages date back to the end of the 3rd-beginning of the 2nd millennium BC and are represented by two types: weakly maneuverable carts with a curved drawbar and a platform with a seat, and lighter and more maneuverable carts in which the charioteer stands or sits directly above the axis, sometimes shifted to the end of the platform. They are prototypes of chariots.
Among the 271 wheel models, all have a protruding hub, 269-three-part, sometimes with tires, one wheel-lightweight with holes. And only one wheel with the image of spokes, apparently from the time of the third dynasty of Ur, is an early evidence of the appearance of this type, known in Mesopotamia and Anatolia from images on seals of the beginning of the second millennium BC.Thus, in the pre-Norman era, light gigs were known in Tell Brak, but the type of authentic chariot has not yet been formed.
The donkey (apse), onager (desert donkey), and mule (kunga) are mentioned as sled animals in written sources. The main vehicle was a donkey. A large donkey skeleton was found at the settlement, along with bronze bits from the end of the third millennium BC .62 Skeletons of donkeys were discovered in Halava, in the tomb of N 70 also at the end of the third millennium BC. Some figures from Tell Brak depict these large donkeys being drawn. Onagers were found in Iran and Syria and have been the main target of meat hunting since the Neolithic period; according to the hymn to the third dynasty king Ur Shulgi, they were hunted with nets. Onagers cannot be domesticated.
Mules are a hybrid of a donkey and a female onager. Brak Nagar was a famous center of their breeding and trade. According to the texts from Ebla, the mule was worth 10 times more than a donkey and was considered the best animal for harnessing, especially in four-wheeled battle and ceremonial carts. It is the mules that were harnessed with the help of a nose ring (like bovids), an alluvial belt or a muzzle-captsug, which prevents biting, that are represented in most models and images of wagons in the glyptic. As for the horse, the documents from Tell Brak speak only of donkeys and mules, but in Mesopotamia, since the third dynasty of Ur, the zizi or anse kur.ra (mountain donkey) is very rarely mentioned. But the Old Babylonian text recommends riding a donkey rather than a horse .63 Among the vast osteological material of the ancient East, horse bones are presumably identified only in Tell Leilan, and S. Bekoni's identification of bones from Tell Selenkai as equine is disputed .64 Of the 191 Equid figures in Tell Brak, only four are supposedly considered by D. Oates to be horses, as is the figure from Tell Tai, assuming that they may represent large donkeys. Even more questionable are the very rare images of horsemen sitting on the rump of equids like donkeys .65 In the light of these data, animals represented on seals, including those from Kul Tepe, harnessed to gigs by means of nose rings and captsugs, should be recognized as mules, not horses. Only a few figures from Kul Tepe may represent horses 66 .
Oates J. 61 Equid Figurines and Chariot Models // Excavations at Tell Brak 2. Cambr., 2000. I would like to express my deep gratitude to J. R. R. Tolkien. Oates for the opportunity to review her work.
Clutton-Brock J., Davies S. 62 More Donkeys from Tell Brak // Iraq. 1993. 55. P. 209-221.
Kovalevskaya street. 63 Horse...; Kuzmina. Distribution of horse breeding...
Boessneck J., Drisch A. van den. 64 Pferde im 4/3 Jahrtausend v. Chr. in Ostanatolien // Saugetierkundliche Mitteilungen. Ht 2. Munchen, 1976. S. 81-87.
Moorey P. 65 Pictorial Evidence for the History of Horseriding in Iraq before the Kassites // Irag. 1970. 32. P. 36-50.
Littauer M., Crouwel J. 66 Wheeled Vehicles and Ridden Animals in the Ancient Near East. Leiden - Koln, 1979. Fig. 28, 29, 32; Ozguc- Т. Ausgrabungen in Kultepe-Kanis. Ankara, 1950. Taf. 33, 7, 2.
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Thus, although the horse was known in the ancient East in the third millennium BC, it did not play any role there. Even at the beginning of the second millennium BC, large donkeys and mules remained as sled animals. Reliable evidence is associated with the use of horses only for harnessing real light chariots with wheels with spokes and dates back no earlier than the XVIII-XVII centuries BC. e. The extreme rarity of the horse hardly stimulated the invention of horse-drawn chariots in Asia Minor. And the fact that horse-breeding terms and training skills are still borrowed in Mitanni, where the Indo-Iranian tradition is preserved, even in the middle of the second millennium BC, allows us to continue to believe that the Indo-Aryans played a prominent role in the spread of the chariot horse in the ancient East, as well as in India.
The birthplace of horse breeding in the Old World was the Eurasian steppe. Numerous horse bones were found on the monuments of the third and early second millennia BC. Ritual burials of horses and their images on petroglyphs and in plastic are known, which indicates the formation of an equestrian cult .67 Thus, in the steppes there were both prerequisites for the invention of chariots-the presence of a two-wheeled cart and a horse, and the military situation stimulated the introduction of new combat tactics. This tends to favor the hypothesis of an independent invention of the chariot in the Southern Russian steppes.
IV. Psalms
Horn and bone psalms were used for harnessing horses to chariots. They are found throughout the steppe range, concentrating from the Don to Northern Kazakhstan. Similar types of steppe psalms are known on the Danube in the Monteoru culture, as well as in Greece in the mine tomb IV and on other monuments.
Psalms have the shape of a shield with protruding monolithic or inset spikes. They were mapped and classified by me on the basis of the typological and technological method; my classification was supplemented by V. A. Novozhenov, using the functional method 68 . In his opinion, at an early stage, the single-strap rein on the horse's nose was used with psalms of type 1a, b; further development of the bridle is associated with the appearance of a cheek strap attached to psalms of type II with additional small holes; the next improvement is the appearance of insert spikes and a side bar, psalms of type III. Mapping has shown that in the eastern part of the range there are psalms with solid spikes, sometimes with rollers around the sleeve, without ornaments. In the west, especially in the Don - Volga forest-steppe, psalms with inset spikes with one central hole and a side plank with an opening (type III), often decorated with Mycenaean decor, predominate.
D. V. Nelin and Yu. V. Goncharova 69 proposed a more partial but not entirely convincing classification, which was based on secondary features: the design of spikes and the shape of the bar, but in conclusion it confirmed our conclusions: the oldest are psalms with solid spikes from Eastern Europe, then there is a dedicated bar for the alluvial belt, and finally psalms with inset ones spikes, sometimes with holes in a different plane.
S. Penner published psalms of Eastern Europe, offering her own classification close to ours, and made a comparison of Mycenaean ornaments; A. N. Usachuk analyzed a group of psalms of Eastern Europe, and A.D. Pryakhin and V. I. Besedin made a number of changes.
Kuzmina. 67 Distribution of horse breeding...; Kuzmina. Origins ofPastoralism...
Kuzmina E. E. 68 Once again about discoid psalms of the Eurasian steppes / / KSIA. 1980. pp. 161. Fig. 8, 21; ona. Where did the Indo-Aryans come from?; Novozhenov. Rock art...
Nelin. 69. Goncharova Yu. V. K voprosu o klassifikatsii diskovidnykh psalii s spikami epokhi pozdnoi bronzy na territorii Vostochnoi Evropy [On the classification of discoid psalms with spikes of the Late Bronze Age in Eastern Europe]. Some aspects of interpretation of burials with disc-shaped psalms in the steppe and forest-steppe zones of Eurasia / / Stratum plus. Issue 2. Kishinev, 1999, pp. 336-349.
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It was assumed that the cheek strap was attached to the side hole, and the alluvial strap was attached to the bar 70 . At the same time, psalms of the Staroyuryevsky type with a side opening in a different plane (our type III) they recognized simultaneous types I and II, considering their differences simply local.
According to the classification of B. S. Bochkarev, presented in a report at the conference in memory of B. B. Piotrovsky in 1998, monolithic psalms are primary, other differences in types are cultural and territorial: in the east, whole psalms are represented, in the west - composite ones. V. S. Bochkarev recognized the Mycenaean psalms as a late derivative of the steppes, which came to Greece through the Danube region, and for the steppes he accepted the calibrated date-XXI-XVIII centuries BC.
Although we disagree on the details of classification, the center of the invention of the shield psalms is generally considered to be Eastern Europe, from where they spread to the Balkans and Greece. Currently, the list of psalms can be significantly expanded. I know of about 150 instances. New finds were made in the Urals, Western and Northern Kazakhstan. Archaic psalms of the first type were found in Sintashta graves with remnants of catacomb and Poltavka features in the Bolshekaragansky and Tanabergen necropolis; specimens of the first and second types come from the Kryvoye Ozero burial ground; psalms of the second type - from the graves of Kamenny Ambar, Sun-2, Kuraili, Bestamak (the last two are Petrovsky). New findings, and most importantly, in stratified complexes, have confirmed the evolution of psalms that I have identified. All of them are devoid of Mycenaean ornaments and reflect not so much the lack of Western connections, as A.D. Pryakhin and V. I. Besedin believe, as the oldest stage in the development of chariot tactics of combat, witnessed in the Urals for the Sintashta society.
V. Migration of Indo-Aryans to the south and chronology of the Novokumak horizon
Proponents of the Indo-Iranian or Aryan attribution of the carriers of the Andronovo culture gave evidence of the advance of steppe tribes south to Central Asia and Afghanistan in the second half of the second millennium BC .71 This migration wave was associated with the appearance of horse bones and images in Turkmenistan during the Namazga VI era, where it was previously unknown, and the spread of horse-drawn chariots there .72 Horse bones have not yet been found in Margiana, but in Bactria there is one horse burial in Dashli [19] and a few images of horse heads on ceremonial bronze axes and pommels [73].
Recently, there has been evidence of contacts between the population of the Urals and the south as far back as the Novokumak era. At the Sintashta settlement, a lapis lazuli bead from Bactria was found, and at the Ustye settlement in the Petrovsky layer, a stucco plate imitating the BMAK pottery was found. A bronze mirror with a protruding handle, Sintashta-Abashev type ceramics, a bracelet, two horse skulls were found in the Red Banner mound under the embankment, and in the main burial 1 - a spear, adze, chisel, awl,
Penner S. 70 Schliemman's Schacht-Graeberrung und der Europasche Nordosten. Bonn, 1998; Usachuk A. N. About the shield psalms from the collection of the Tambov Regional Museum of Local Lore / / Abashevskaya cultural and historical region. Tambov, 1996. p. 26-29; onk. Regional features of the technology of making shield psalms / / Complex societies of Central Eurasia in the III-I millennium BC Chelyabinsk, 1999. pp. 154-156; Pryakhin et al. Horse bridle...
71 See bibliography: Kuzmina. Where did the Indo-Aryans come from? Pyankova L. T. Kul'tury stepnoy bronzy [Steppe Bronze Cultures]. Istoriya tadzhikskogo naroda [History of the Tajik people]. Dushanbe, 1998, pp. 149-179.
Kuzmina E. E. 72 Stages of development of wheeled transport in Central Asia in the Eneolithic and Bronze Age / / VDI. 1980. N4. pp. 11-35.
Sarianidi. 73 Ancient farmers... p. 148; Pittman N. Art of the Bronze Age. N.Y., 1984; Amiet. Antiquities of Bactria... Fig. 9b; Ligabue G., Salvatori S. Bactria: an Ancient Oasis Civilization from the Sands of Afghanistan. Venice, 1988. Fig. 96 (Fig. 101 probably shows the head of a two-humped camel).
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a knife, abrasives, three Sintashta vessels, ram bones and a dog skeleton; a mirror belongs to the Bactrian type 74 .
The discovery of the Tugai metallurgist settlement near the Zeravshan ridge polymetallic deposit in Samarkand is of crucial importance. A semi-dugout and a metallurgical complex were identified, including round hearths, furnaces for smelting ore, traces of production - ore, ingots, coal, clay crucibles. Bronze celt, stone axe, hammer, arrows were found. Along with metalworking, the population was engaged in cattle breeding: bones of small and large cattle were found. Cultural attribution of the complex is established by ceramics, represented by 22 stucco vessels. They are of Peter's type, gray and black in color, with an ornament made with a toothed, sometimes tracked stamp or a walking comb. Motifs of the pattern-zigzag, triangle, Christmas tree often to the bottom. Two vessels have traces of a cloth template. In the test of pots, an admixture of shells, and in two-talcum powder 75 . The discovery of the Tugai settlement is evidence of an early wave of migration of the Andronovo population. The presence of an admixture of talc in the ceramics, which is specific to the Urals, indicates where the population came from in search of a new ore base. To establish the chronology of the monument, the discovery of fragments of six high - quality stucco vessels in the form of open conical or hemispherical bowls, one of which is black-flattened, the others are red-flattened, is crucial. This pottery was brought from the neighboring agricultural settlement of Sarazm, located 27 km from Tugai. N. A. Avanesova attributed it to the fourth layer 76 . For the first time, the Tugaya complex makes it possible to synchronize the pastoral culture of the early Aronian with the agricultural culture of Sarazm, which has wide connections in the ancient East, especially with Balochistan and the Indus Valley.
The burial of the Zardcha Caliph near Panjikent, not far from Sarazm, on the left bank of the Zeravshan River, is of great importance for elucidating the time and fate of the Early Ironic tribes .77 The deceased lies in an oval grave 3.1 m long, 3.5 m deep, crouched on his right side, head on the NW, one hand under his head, the other on his stomach. The skeleton of a horned ram is placed at the head. This rite is typical of the Sapalli culture in Northern Bactria78 . A rich inventory was found in the grave. Ceramics are represented by three spherical vessels made on a potter's wheel of pink color of firing with a narrow throat, the bottom cut down at two specimens and a tamga on a shoulder at one of the vessels. These dishes are similar to the ceramics of the Jarkutan stage of the Sapalli culture: the Jarkutan burial ground, partly Dashli-3 79 .
In the Bactrian-Margian complex and Iran, other inventory also finds parallels. Analogs to the bronze vessel with a drain are found in Sapalli, Hissar III, Bactria; to the bronze vessel with a fluted neck-in Bactria; the temporal ring with thickenings at the ends is similar to the decorations from Sapalli 80 . They also belong to the same circle
Vinogradov N. B. the Southern Trans-Urals, in Convergence and divergence in the development of Eneolithic - Bronze Age cultures in Central and Eastern Europe. Saint Petersburg, 1995, p. 72; Sungatov F. A., Safin F. F. Issledovaniya kurganykh mogilnikov v Zauralie v 1991 g. [Studies of burial mounds in the Trans-Urals in 1991]. Ufa, 1995. P. 60. Fig. 2. Cf. Sarianidi. Ancient farmers... Table 2, 8. Fig. 40.
Avanesova N. 75 Pasteurs et agriculteurs de la vallee du Zeravshan au debut de l'age du bronze // Lyonnet B. Sarasm (Tadjikistan) Ceramiques. P., 1996 P. 117-131. Fig. 43-44.
76 Ibid. P. 120. Fig. 41.
Bobomulloev, S. 77, Excavations of a burial structure from Zardcha-Khalifa, Izv. 1993. Pp. 3, 56-62; Bostonguhar S. Upper Zaravshan river in the second millennium BC Dushanbe, 1998; Bobomulloev S. Bin bronzezeitliches Grab aus Zardca Chalifa bei Pentzikent (Zeravsan-Tal) / / Archaologische Mitteilungen aus Iran und Turan. 1997. P. 29, 121-134.
Askarov A. 78 Ancient agricultural culture of the Bronze Age in the south of Uzbekistan. Tashkent, 1977. p. 138.
31-32; Askarov A., Abdullaev B. Dzharkutan. Tashkent, 1983. p. 7; Tab. V; XXI, 7; XXVIII; Sarianidi. Ancient farmers ... Fig. 27-28.
Askarov. 80 Ancient agricultural culture... Tables XXVII, /5; XXXIX, 17-19; Sarianidi. 41, 9; Sarianidi. Margiana... Fig. 13; Amiet. Antiquities of Bactria... Fig. 1 Ib, d.
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gold cup, razor knife, petiolate dagger with straight shoulders, beads made of gold and turquoise. The complex includes a phallic-shaped stone pestle with a length of 26.5 cm and a diameter of 4.5 cm. N. Boroffka 81 assigned it to the Andronovo type VB, close to type IV, characteristic of Central Asia of the Namazga period V-VI, and dated it to 1800-1400 BC. Comparison with Ulug-depe and Parkhai allows us to assume the date of 1800-1600 BC. n. e.
Of particular interest is an 18 cm long bronze pin topped with a horse figurine. Zoomorphic pommel pins are well known: these are Sapal Tepe, Jarkutan, Dashli-3, burials of Bactria, Hissar-III, Khak 82 treasure . However, I do not know of a single image of a horse on a pommel in the entire agricultural region. Stylistically, this image is somewhat similar to the images of horses on a golden temporal ring from the Andronovo burial ground Mynshunkur, on a knife from Seyminsky burial ground 83 and a pommel from Semipalatinsk: the static pose, exterior, long tail, and interpretation of the mane are similar. In Zardcha Khalifa, the fragments of several disc-shaped psalms were reconstructed. These are bone psalms with a diameter of 8 cm with a central large hole surrounded by a roller and four solid spikes 84 . They belong to the first type according to my classification, which represents the original most archaic form and are characteristic only of the early Sintashta complexes of the Urals: Sintashta and Bolshekaragansky 85 . Tanabergen presents psalms of the first type, but without a roller, in the Potapovsky burial ground on the Volga-with a roller, but with additional holes 86 . A pair of bronze bits with rings and couplings at both ends with a length of 11.5 and 12 cm is connected to the chariot complex. Comparing them with bits from Kairakkums is not correct. I don't know their analogies.
Analysis of the materials of the Zardcha Khalifa shows that most of the artifacts belong to the BMAK, while the image of a horse on a pin and especially the psalms belonging to the variant characteristic only of the early Sintashta monuments of the Urals allow us to establish the zone from which horses and chariots appeared in Central Asia, and to consider the burial in Zardcha Khalifa, as well as the settlement of Tugai, as a reflection of the first wave of migration of Indo-Iranians to the south.
What is the absolute age of these monuments? The problems of chronology, which form the core of any historical construction, are now hotly debated 87 . In Russian science, the chronology of the Bronze Age was based on the Western European system based on the Mycenaean scale by linking steppe monuments to it using the method of analogies. In Western archaeology, especially in the Ancient East, the use of calibrated dates from 14 (radiocarbon dating) was established, which was initiated by the article by K. Renfrew "Wessex without Mycenae" (1968).
The chronology of monuments of the Novokumaksky horizon was based on synchronization: 1 ) according to psalms and ornaments - with the mine tomb of Mycenae IV, the dates of which are 1570-1550 BC. e. constitute the terminus post quern of psalms of the first type, determining the age of the horizon of the XVII-XVI centuries BC; 2 ) by plaques-with the Monteo culture-
Boroffka N. 81 Zu den steinernen "Zepfern/Stossel-Zeptern", "Miniatursaulen" und "Phalli" der Bronzezeit Eurasiens // Archaologische Mitteilungen aus Iran und Turan. 1998. 30. P. 17-113. Abb. 25.
Kuzmina E. E. 82 Eneolithic and Bronze Age metal products in Central Asia. In 4-9. 1966. Table XVI; Askarov. Ancient agricultural culture... XLI; L, 5-6; Sarianidi. 43-44; Askarov et al. Jarkutan. Table XXI,/; Amief. Antiquities of Bactria... Fig. 12.
Kuzmina. 83 Where did the Indo-Aryans come from? p. 5, 256, fig.; Bader O. N. The Oka Basin in the Bronze Age, Moscow, 1970. Fig. 52.
Bohomulloev. 84 Bin bronzezeitliches Grab... S. 127. Abb. 4.
Genning et al 85 Sentashta ... Fig. 57, 8; Kuzmina. Where did the Indo-Aryans come from? pp. 171-189. 37; Batalov et al. Funerary complexes ... pp. 80-81. Fig. 17, 10; 18, 4 .
Potapovsky kurgan burial ground ... Fig. 33,/; 42, 3; Tkachev. To the problem ... Fig. 2, 10, 11.
Kuzmina E. 87 Three Methods of Chronologization and Three Directions of Synchronization of the Sites of the Bronze Age in the Steppe of Eurasia // 4 Annual Meeting of Europian Association of Archaeologists. Goteborg, 1998. P. 90-91.
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ru 88; 3) on fragments of faience beads with a number of European cultures. Mycenae is now being aged by one century89 on the basis of: 1 ) synchronization with the monuments of Egypt and the Middle East, 2 ) revision of the schemes of G. Karo and A. Furumark; 3) the date of the eruption of the volcano on the island of Santorini, established by the C14 method . There is also a tendency to age the traditional chronology of Middle European monuments of stages Al, A2 according to P. Reinecke based on dendrochronology data 90 . A promising method of dendrochronology developed in Europe gives an aging of traditional dates by one or two centuries, but they remain younger than calibrated radiocarbon dates. The calibrated dates differ significantly from the historical chronology of Egypt and the ancient Orient91 and give too wide a spread (for example, for the Sintashta burial ground-2250-1390 BC without calibration), which still caused doubts about the validity of their use.
A series of new radiocarbon dates have now been obtained for the burial sites of Kryvoye Ozero, Potapovka, Utevka VI, and Krutenky Kurgan, which shifts the Novokumak horizon to the turn of the third-second millennium BC. 92 Ancient dates have also been obtained for Siberia 93 . However, not all researchers accept the new chronology, 10 radiocarbon dates of the Arkaim settlement (8 - GIN laboratory, 2 - University of Arizona) and nine more dates for other monuments of the Urals are proposed. "The main zone of confidence intervals corresponds to the XVIII-XVI centuries BC, although the other group, in particular, for Krivoy Lake-XXI-XX centuries BC"; the date of details of the chariot of the burial ground of Satan-1557-1255 BC. 94 These discrepancies do not yet allow us to draw an unambiguous conclusion.
Especially significant are the differences between the chronological systems of Central Asia among domestic and Western specialists. The chronology of Turkmen monuments was developed by V. M. Masson and became generally accepted. V. I. Sarianidi attributes the completion of the formation of the BMAK in Afghanistan to the middle of the second millennium BC. In Margiana, he identifies the following periods: 1) Keleli - XIX-XVIII centuries BC, 2) Gonur -XVII-XV centuries BC, 3 A. Askarov in Northern Bactria dates the Sapalli stage to 1700-1500 BC, the Jarkutan stage to 1500-1350 BC, and the Molali stage to 1350-1000 BC; later, the Jarkutan stage was dated to the third quarter of the second millennium BC, and the Kuzali stage to the XIII-XII centuries BC. L. B. Kircho and S. G. Popov insist on the traditional dates, but they are not the same as the Molali period of the XI-X centuries BC.
88 Смирнов, Кузьмина. Происхождение индоиранцев... Литвиненко Р.А. Костяные пряжки как хронологический индикатор для культур бронзового века юга Восточной Европы // Доно-Донецкий регион в системе древностей эпохи бронзы Восточноевропейской степи и лесостепи. Вып. 2. Воронеж, 1996. С. 46-50; Матвеев Ю.П. Костяные пряжки и относительная хронология культур эпохи бронзы Донецко-Волжского региона // Там же. С. 27-33.
89 See bibliography: Kuzmina. Where did the Indo-Aryans come from? p. 179.
Becker В., Krause R., Kromer В. 90 Zur absoluten Chronologic der fruhen Bronzezeit // Germania. 1989. 67. 2. S. 421-442; Kroemer V.. Becker V. von. Germanen Oak and Pine C 14 Calibration // Radiocarbon. 1993. Bd 35. S. 125-135; Runushor^ K. Historical Implications. Chronological Studies in European Archaeology // Acta Archaeologia. Kobenhavn, 1992; Kuniftolm P. A Date-List for Bronze Age and Iron Age Monuments Based on Combined Dendrochronological and Radiocarbon Evidence // Anatolia and its Neighbors. Ankara, 1993. P. 371-373.
Chernykh E. N. 91 Izotopnye chasy istorii chelovechestva [The isotope clock of the history of mankind]. 1997. N 2. pp. 20-32.
Vinogradov. 92 Chronological contents...; Anthony, Vinogradov. Birth of the Chariot...; Kuznetsov P. F. Novye radiocarbon daty dlya khronologii kul'tury eneolita - bronzovogo veka yuga lesostepnogo Povolzhya [New radiocarbon dates for the chronology of Eneolithic-Bronze Age cultures in the south of the Forest-steppe Volga region]. Towards absolute dating...; Mikhailova et al. New monuments...
Kiryutin Yu. F. 93 Problemy khronologii pamyatnikov eneolita i bronzy Yuzhnoi Sibiri [Technical problems of chronology of Eneolithic and Bronze Monuments of Southern Siberia]. Barnaul, 1991, pp. 43-47; Orlova L. A. Radiocarbon dating of archaeological sites of Siberia and the Far East // Methods of natural sciences in archaeological reconstructions. Novosibirsk, 1995. pp. 207-233; Matveev. The first Andronovtsy...
94 Arkaim, p. 60; Novozhenov. Rock paintings... p. 160.
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V. M. Masson recognizes the necessity of aging steppe and South-Central Asian complexes 95 .
This chronology is seriously criticized by Western scholars, who insist on the aging of the monuments by about 300-500 years and the dating of the BMAK to 2300-1500 BC.
As for the age of the Tugai settlement, B. Lionnet argues with N. A. Avanesova, accepting the early date of Sarazm-type ceramics of the third millennium BC. A. I. Isaakov, based on the calibrated date, attributes the fourth layer of Sarazm to 2300-1900 BC .97 S. Bobomulloev attributed the burial of Zardcha-Khalifa to the early stage of Namazga VI, to the Jarkutan stage of the Sapalli culture and dated it, following A. Askarov, to 1700-1500 BC, based on the date from C 14 1650+/-60 He later compared the complex to Shah Tepe NA and Hissar SHS, accepted the calibrated date of the Jarkutan temple as 2034-1684 BCE and assigned the Zardcha Caliph to 2100-1700 BCE 98 .
Thus, the dating of the sites of the Novokumak horizon on the European and Central Asian scale coincide: according to the traditional chronology, they belong to the XVII - XVI centuries BC, synchronized with Mycenae; according to the new Mycenaean and European dendrochronology of the Bronze A2 period - to the XVIII-XVII centuries BC; the use of calibrated radiocarbon dates determines their age and location. In Europe, and in Central Asia of the XXI-XVIII centuries BC, the latter date is supported by a new radiocarbon date of Psalms from Monte-99 .
The adoption of calibrated dates removes the question of the chronological antecedence of the chariots of Fore Asia and confirms the priority of the Sintashta monuments in the distribution of horse-drawn chariots in the Old World.
The discovery of the Tugai settlement and the burial site of Zardcha Khalifa for the first time allows us to synchronize agricultural monuments such as Sarazm IV and BMAK of the Dzharkutan era with the Early Iron Age, to establish the advance of a group of steppe tribes to the south from the Urals, from where together with them came the skills of metallurgy, horses and psalms for harnessing them to chariots. These data are in good agreement with the hypothesis of Indo-Iranian attribution of the Andronovo culture, reflecting the early stage of migration of Aryan tribes to the south.
I. M. Dyakonov suggested that some Indo-Iranians left their European ancestral homeland early and settled in Central Asia. The same idea was independently expressed by T. Barrow, who proceeded from the fact that the Vedic language has a lot of vocabulary borrowed from Dravidian and other aboriginal languages of India, while in the Iranian language it is absent, which means that the Iranians replaced the related Indo-Iranian population that came earlier. This hypothesis is actively defended by A. Parpola . 100 K. Lamberg-Karlovsky, in a discussion at Arkaim in 1999, emphasized that the traces of Andronovo's progress and interaction with the other regions of the Russian Federation are still very important.-
Sarianidi. 95 Ancient farmers... p. 158; same name. Antiquities... p. 5; Askarov. 31; Askarov et al. Dzharkutan ... p. 33, 39, 42, 44; Kircho L. B., Popov S. G. On the question of radiocarbon chronology of ancient civilizations of Central Asia. 2. S. 350-361; Masson V. M. Ancient civilizations of the East and steppe tribes in the light of archaeological data / / Ibid. P. 265-285.
Francfort Н.-Р. 96 Fouilles cle Shortughai. Recherches sur 1'Asie Centrale protohistorique. V. 1-11. P., 1989. P. 241-242; Kohl Ph. Central Asia // Chronologies in Old World Archaeology. V. II. Washington, 1992. P. 154-162; Hiehert F. Chronology of Margiana and Radiocarbon Dates // Inform. Bull. of Study of Cultures of Central Asia. 1993. 19. P. 136-148; Hieberi F. Origins of the Bronze Age Oasis Civilization in Central Asia. Cambr., 1994. P. 75-87; Hiehert F.. Lamherg-Karlovski C. Central Asia and the Indo-Iranian Borderlands // Iran. 1992. XXX. P. 1-15; Lyonnet. Sarazm... P. 16, 67; Gotzelt Т. Ansichten der Arhaeologie der Erforschung der "mittleren" Bronzezeit. Espelkamp. 1996.
97 Lyonnet. Sarazm... P. 60, 68, 120; Isakov A. I. Sarazm. Dushanbe, 1991, pp. 113-115.
98 Bobomulloevs. Excavations... P. 63; Bohomulloev. Ein bronzezeitliches Grab... P. 132.
Sahuria Е. 99 La culture de Monteoru a deuxieme etape de developpement a la lumiere des fouilles de Sarata Monteoru // Dacia. 1990. XXXIV. P. 43.
Dyakonov II 100 VDI. 1960. N 3; Burrow T. The Proto-Indoaryans / / JRAS. 1973. N 2. P. 123-140; Parpola A. The Coming of the Aryans to Iran and India and the Cultural and Ethnic Identity of the Dahas / / Studia Orientalia. 64. Helsinki, 1988. 195-302; Parpola A. Margiana and the problem of Aryans / / Russian Ethnographer, issue 21, Moscow, 1994, pp. 49-76.
page 19
actions with the agricultural population can be clearly traced in Central Asia, but practically do not reach India, while in Balochistan there is clear evidence of the active influence of BMAC, which he aptly calls the Oxa culture. In the light of the burial data from Samarkand, where the assimilation of elements of steppe culture with agricultural culture was revealed, this idea deserves close attention.
But judging by the Vedic texts, the Indo-Aryans who came to India could not have been carriers of the developed agricultural culture of the Oxus. They were shepherds who roamed for six months in carts with their flocks or followed the sacred royal horse in the Ashwamedha rite to conquer new lands .101 In the article "Is Vedic archaeology possible?", V. Pay wrote that archaeologists can only expect to find temporary sites with a thin cultural layer and a handful of shards of coarse stucco ceramics .102 Even among the Persians who came to Iran in the first millennium BC, only six tribes became settled, and four remained nomadic .103 The economic and cultural type of the Aryans corresponds only to the material culture of the pastoral peoples of the steppes and, above all, to the carriers of the Andronovo culture .104
The first wave of migrating Andronovo residents reached Zeravshan at the Novokumak stage. It is not yet known whether they went further and entered the borders of India, coming into contact with the carriers of the Harappan culture, of which they were contemporaries, if we accept calibrated dates. It is also not clear whether they spoke the still undivided Indo-Iranian language or whether their ancestors were still divided into Kafirs, Aryans and Proto-Iranians in their ancestral homeland. In any case, judging by the similarity of religious and mythological ideas, the cult of the horse and chariot, the allocated stratum of chariot warriors, their common sets of weapons by the XVII century BC, when the Aryans together with the Hurrians appeared in Mitanni, the culture of individual Indo-Iranian tribes was still very similar.
THE FIRST WAVE OF INDO-IRANIAN MIGRATION TO THE SOUTH
Ye.Ye. Kuzmina
The light battle horse chariots were very important in the culture of Indo-Arians when they came to India from their motherland. The comparison of the texts of Rigveda, Avesta and the documents from Nuzi in the Near East demonstrate the identity of both armaments and the terminology referring to them. This fact proves the common origins of chariotry combat tactics in their motherland. The oldest chariots driven by a pair of horses with bone cheek- pieces were discovered in Sinashta and Petrovka-type cemeteries in the Urals and West Kazakhstan, Potapovka-type on the Volga and Abashevo on the Don. A hypothesis is proposed that these warriors were Proto-Indo-Iranians or Indo-Arians before their migration to India.
Petrovka-type pottery and metal implements were found in the settlement of Tugai near Samarkand in a complex with ceramics of the landtiller's site of Sarazm. Bone cheek-pieces of Sinashta type were discovered with bronze bits and a pin with a horse in the Bactria-Margiana complex in the Zardcha-Halifa grave near Samarkand. These materials prove that early Andronovo population migrated from the Urals to the South and give the opportunity to check the synchronization of Sinashta-Petrovka monuments in the Eurasian steppes with the agricultural cultures Sarazm, Bactria-Margiana Complex, Namasga VI, Hissar III and Harappa.
Rau. 101 ZurVedischen Altertumskunde...; Elizarenkova, Toporov. The world of things...
Rau W. 102 Ist Vedische Archaeologie moglich? // Zeitschrift der deutsche morgenlandische Gesellschaft. 111. N 1. Suppl. 19.
Deacons. 103 History of the Mussel. P. 187; Grantovsky. Iran and Iranians... pp. 111-113.
Kuzmina. 104 Where did the Indo-Aryans come from?; Deacons. The ancestral homeland of Indo-Europeans...
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