Sofya Ragozina

On Bryan S. Turner's Anti-Orientalist Sociology of Islam

Sofya Ragozina - Lecturer, Department of Russian and World History Higher School of Economics (Moscow). sofyaragozina@gmail.com

The article makes an overview of the work of Bryan Stanley Turner, prominent expert on Islam and the author of an original theory as reflected in his papers recently put together in the volume called "Sociology of Islam". The crucial point of most of the chapters included in the volume is a thorough analysis of Orientalism and its implications to current Islamic Studies. Beginning with a critique of the sociology of Max Weber, which Turner believes to have created the modern false paradigm in Islamic studies, he then methodically identifies obvious and hidden forms of Orientalism, demonstrating how to try avoiding it in research. The article discusses elements of Turner's theory showing its strengths and revealing its weaknesses.

Keywords: Islamic studies, orientalism, sociology of Islam, Islam, critique of orientalism.

The study of Islam remains a hot topic. On the one hand, this is due to such phenomena as the radicalization of political Islam in some regions of the world, and on the other - to the actual identification of these phenomena with Islam as such. Based on media reports about terrorist attacks committed by "Islamists" and about migrants from Muslim countries driving citizens of host countries out of the labor market, a mostly negative image of Islam is formed. This one-sided view of the problem is also reflected in academic discourse. The focus of a large number of scientific works on Islam is precisely the problem of radical political Islam, while the analysis of legal Islamic organizations in some cases focuses on the problem of radical political Islam.-

Ragozina S. On the anti-orientalist sociology of Islam by Brian Turner / / Gosudarstvo, religiya, tserkva v Rossii i za rubezhom [State, Religion, Church in Russia and Abroad]. 2015. N 1 (33). pp. 297-310.

Ragozina, S. (2015) "On Bryan S. Turner's Anti-Orientalist Sociology of Islam", Gosudarstvo, religiia, tserkov' v Rossii i za rubezhom 33(1): 297 - 310.

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yx provides more information for understanding the situation in a particular country or region. In other words, we can say with a certain degree of confidence that we are dealing with a misunderstanding of Islam as a complex religious, socio-political and cultural system. Moreover, this misunderstanding takes place both at the layman's level and often at the academic level.

However, one should not assume that absolutely all studies are devoted to radical political Islam. Also popular are the problems of the formation and development of Islamic political thought, there is a wide range of tender research, there are works in the field of ethnography, anthropology, economics, etc. The problem is that the study of Islam is on the periphery of each of these areas of knowledge, not representing its own subject area, sufficient to distinguish a special sector within each of them. Hence the inevitable fragmentation. The researcher may be a high-class specialist in the field of Moroccan Bedouin ethnography, studying the everyday practices of Islam, or have an excellent knowledge of the history of Islam as a religious teaching. However, neither one nor the other will have a general idea of what constitutes Islam as a single system. The problem is that there is no general methodological approach to understanding the problems of Islam. We are not talking about developing a single methodology for all areas of knowledge - this is impossible. What is important is rather a simple designation of the "coordinate system", which allows you to get as close as possible to objective knowledge.

The work of the British-Australian sociologist Brian Stanley Turner is a bold attempt to develop a similar methodological principle. His recent book "The Sociology of Islam" brings together 15 articles published at different times.1 Its strong point is: a kind of unclouded vision that allows you to look at the problem of Islam not in the context of one village, city or country, but in the context of the whole world. This is the reason for his recognition as a specialist in Islam. As a professor at New York University and the University of Western Sydney, he also lectures at universities in England, Scotland, the Netherlands, Singapore and heads several research centers.

1. Turner, B.S. (2013) The Sociology of Islam: Collected Essays of Bryan S.Turner. Ed. By Bryan S. Turner and Kamaludeen Mohamed Nasir. Ashgate Publishing Company.

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Chapters of his book are devoted to a wide variety of issues: "Origins and Traditions in Islam and Christianity, "" Orientalism, Islam, and Capitalism," "Sovereignty and the State of Emergency: Political Theology, Islam, and American Conservatism," and so on. How can such different topics end up under the same cover? We can say that this book is a kind of "atlas" of knowledge about Islam in general. The fundamental point is the theme that connects all these seemingly disparate thematic blocks into a single whole: a detailed analysis of orientalism, its history and modernity, as well as its consistent criticism. This theme is almost central to the entire work of B. Turner, it runs a red line through all his works. Starting with a critique of M. Weber's sociology, which, in his opinion, laid the foundations of the modern incorrect paradigm of studying Islam, B. Turner continued to methodically identify the obvious and hidden forms of orientalism, while at the same time demonstrating how to avoid it. It is worth noting that critical dialogue with other people's ideas and works is an important feature of B. Turner's theorizing. By revealing the inconsistency of one approach or another, he adds something new to his own theory.

It is no coincidence that the sociology of Islam claims to form such a general coordinate system. The subject field of this particular discipline includes the main elements, the analysis of which in the context of studying Islam should lead to an understanding of Islam as a complex phenomenon. B. Turner assigns an important place in the discussion of the methodology of studying Islam to how such new phenomena of the modern era as intensive informatization of society, the crisis of the national state, migration flows from the Islamic world to Europe should be perceived. Below, we will try to look in detail at the main elements of Turner's concept, as well as make a number of critical comments on some particular points.

Criticism of orientalism

The concept of orientalism was introduced in the work of Edward Said, first published in 1978.2 It became a kind of trigger, after which a whole series of critics appeared.-

2. Said, E. Orientalism. Vintage Books, 1978.

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There were several critical 3 and apologetic 4 reviews of this book, as well as works that continued the conceptualization of orientalism taking into account new realities, 5 or accused E. Said himself of orientalism.6 The historiography of" orientalism " can be the subject of a separate study. Here it is worth noting that all subsequent works that appeared after the publication of Said's work, criticizing or praising him, somehow took the thesis of orientalism into account. B. Turner's concept was no exception.

In our opinion, it is logical to start with some general points of E. Said's concept, namely with his definition of orientalism. The main point is two main theses. First, orientalism is "a style of thinking based on an ontological and epistemological distinction between 'East' and (almost always) 'West'." Secondly, it is "a sign of European-Atlantic power over the East" 7. B. Turner, agreeing with this definition of orientalism, consistently deepens it, revealing new semantic layers. Thus, he identifies three main theses of Said: (1) The "East" is constructed by the West as its negative alternative; (2) despite the cultural diversity of Eastern societies, the East is more likely to appear as a single whole in Western scientific discourse; (3) the formation of an understanding of the East is conditioned by the historical context and the corresponding power structure, namely the history of imperialism and colonial expansion.8 Continuing his reflections in the logic of E. Said, Turner focuses on the dichotomous, exclusionary discourse on the interaction between the two states.

3. Winder, B. (1981) "Orientalism by Edward Said (a Review)", Middle East Journal 35 (4): 615 - 619; Clifford, J. (1980) "Orientalism by Edward W.Said (a Review)", History and Theory 19 (2): 204 - 223.

4. Seidman, S. (1996) "Empire and Knowledge: More Troubles, New Opportunities for Sociology", Contemporary Sociology 25 (3): 313 - 316; Leblilng, B. (1980) "Orientalists", Journal of Palestine Studies 9 (2): 118 - 122; Asad, T. (1980) "Orientalism by Edward Said (a Review)", The English Historical Review 95 (376): 648 - 649.

5. См. например: Thomas, M. C. (2010) "Orientalism and Comparative Political Theory", The Review of Politics 72 (4): 653 - 677; Lau, L. (2009) "Re-Orientalism: The Perpetration and Development of Orientalism by Orientals", Modern Asian Studies 43 (2): 571 - 590.

6. Gran, P. (1980) "Orientalism by Edward Said (a Review)", Journal of the American Oriental Society 100 (3): 328 - 331.

7. Said E. Orientalism. Saint-Petersburg: Russian World Publishing House, 1995, pp. 9, 14.

8. Turner, B. S. The Sociology of Islam, p. 137.

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East and West. All phenomena of "eastern" reality are evaluated by Western scientists in the categories of "modern-traditional", "dynamic-static", "progressive-reactionary", "original-imitating", which significantly reduces the effectiveness of using such an analytical tool9.

This reflection on Said's legacy is not new to modern science. However, there is something in Turner that fundamentally distinguishes him from both his predecessors and contemporaries who understand orientalism. The main goal set by Said in his book is to describe the power of the "West" over the "East" 10. B. Turner agrees with this, but believes that such a study should not become an end in itself. The main goal is to overcome orientalism, which significantly restricts the understanding of Islam and the Muslim world. B. Turner sees the origins of modern orientalism in cultural optics, which has been dominant in the Western world since the XIX century and defines Western identity.

Criticism of the prevailing approaches in sociology

As the primary source of orientalism, B. Turner considers the rationalistic sociology of Max Weber, as well as his thesis on the conditionality of the economic well-being of Europe by "Protestant ethics". According to this logic, in the conditions of authoritarian political regimes, in the absence of Self-motivation, it is impossible to develop a class of successful entrepreneurs. Such thinking leaves no chance for Eastern societies to develop; development as such is possible only by "Western" logic.

Criticism of the Weberian approach, which influenced the narrow understanding of Islam in the West, is devoted to the first fundamental work of B. Turner "Weber and Islam", published in 197811. It can be said that the ideas presented in this work predetermined all his further work. The approach proposed by Weber has been adopted by an overwhelming number of scientists, which at the moment consciously or unconsciously leads to significant distortions.-

9. Ibid., p. 127.

10. Said E. Orientalism, p. 35.

11. Turner, B. S. (1978) Weber and Islam: A Critical Study. Routledge Kegan & Paul.

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in the analysis of eastern societies. And the main such distortion is precisely orientalism-the product of rationalistic typologization and methodological individualism of M. Weber.

In his preliminary remarks to the book "Protestant Ethics and the Spirit of Capitalism", M. Weber states that capitalism in one form or another was also present in Eastern societies. However, Western capitalism has one special feature - the "rational capitalist organization of free labor"12. The effectiveness of such an economic system is made possible by the values of individual motivation, achieving the best possible result, and "worldly asceticism", which constitute the so-called"Protestant ethics". In fairness, it should be noted that M. Weber analyzes a very specific case of Western Europe, without trying to extrapolate the data obtained to other countries.13 In other words, the comparison of the West with the Other serves only as a hypothetical analytical construction. However, the influence of M. Weber's legacy on world science turned out to be so significant that after a short time, his views completely changed the entire structure of knowledge, making the discourse about the "standard" of Western culture "hegemonic "(in the terminology of A. Gramsci, 14 and then E. Laclau and Sh. Mouff 15).

B. Turner thoroughly deconstructs Weber's theory of the relationship between economics and religion, demonstrating its inconsistency in the analysis of Islamic societies. Turner presents M. Weber's theory in the following four theses:

(1) Protestant ethics is an ideal system of values;

(2) a Protestant ethic is a necessary condition for the emergence of capitalism;

(3) the main focus of the analysis is on the concept of "understanding";

12. Weber M. (1990) Protestant ethics and the spirit of capitalism, Moscow: Progress, p. 51.

13. Ibid., p. 56.

14. For more information, see Gramsci, A. (2011) Prison Notebooks. Transl. by J.A. Buttigieg. New York City: Columbia University Press.

15. For more information, see Laclau, E., Mouffe, Ch. (2001) Hegemony and Socialist Strategy. Towards Radical Democratic Politics. London, New York: Verso.

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(4) religious beliefs are defined by the socio-economic context.

According to B. Turner, the first three of these theses are wrong. The refutation of these theses occupies a significant place in his works. He analyzes in detail the social basis of early Islam, saying that among the first followers of Islam there were a significant number of merchants; examines the economic systems that developed in the Islamic region at different historical stages of its development. At the same time, he does not refute the fourth - essentially Marxist - thesis, since, like Karl Marx, he proceeds from the importance of the economic factor for the formation of the Islamic world.

To sum up Turner's critique of Weber, it boils down to the fact that the German sociologist poses an inherently incorrect question. He mistakenly asks why there is no rational capitalism anywhere but in Europe. The correct formulation of the question is: how to explain the transition of Islamic countries from one economic model to another, taking into account the specifics of each of them16.

The third thesis - about" understanding " - needs, in our opinion, a more detailed explanation. The influence of religion on the economy was analyzed not only on the example of Western Europe and Protestantism, M. Weber also has works on Judaism,as well as the religions of China and India. 17 They analyze in detail the phenomenon of patrimonialism, the activities of the bureaucracy, and the influence of religion on the functioning of public institutions. All these works are united by a common methodological principle - "understanding". The concept of "understanding" is one of the central concepts in M. Weber's sociology. Understanding is the knowledge of the objectivity of an action through the study of its subjectively assumed meaning. Values and meanings are closely related to each other. Another important element of his theory is the concept of "selective affinity": "When two systems of ideas partially coincide or include similar ideas, they say,

16. Turner, B.S. The Sociology of Islam, p. 24.

17. Weber, M. (1964; first edition - 1916) The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism. New York: Macmillan; Weber, M. (1958; first edition - 1916) The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism. Glencoe, IL: Free Press; Weber, M. (1967; first edition -1917 - 1919) Ancient Judaism. Free Press.

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that these systems have a selective affinity"18. The ideas of Protestantism and the ideas of capitalism turned out to be "best suited to each other", which was manifested in the development of the West and the lag of Eastern societies. B. Turner emphasizes that Weber never set himself the task of discovering a "selective affinity" between Islam and a certain economic system. And even if such a task were set, it would hardly be possible to fulfill it for the reason that the concept of "Islam" includes a huge number of meanings, the explanation of which is an independent sociological problem.19 Thus, Weber's" understanding "as a methodological technique, according to B. Turner, is insufficient for analyzing the Islamic context: "understanding" simplifies it too much.

As an example of one of these simplifications concerning Islam, which occupy a significant place in Western political theory, the following ideal types of domination are singled out: "patriarchal patrimonialism", "prebendal feudalism" and "sultanism". The latter is particularly firmly embedded in some segments of the scientific discourse.20 Pointing to the centralized nature of power and traditional or charismatic legitimacy, these concepts do not provide any explanation for the real state of affairs in a particular state: in this logic, the Sultanist regime prevails in both Turkmenistan and Brunei.

B. Turner criticizes M. Weber not for the bias of his research - he recognizes the logic of his reasoning, the validity of the methodological approach-but for the fact that his theory contains premises that discriminate against non-Western cultures. In fact, B. Turner accuses him of justifying Eurocentrism, which will later become the basis of the structure of knowledge in the XX and XXI centuries. In addition, Turner does not recognize simplifications arising from any single conceptual framework. This or that Islamic society should be analyzed in all its cultural, socio-political aspects

18. Selective affinity / / Sociological dictionary. [http://sociological_ dictionary.academic.ru/, accessed from 18.08.2014].

19. Turner, B.S. The Sociology of Islam, p. 26.

20. See, for example, Linz, H. (2000) Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes. Lynne Rienner Publishers.

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and economic diversity. For this reason, he criticizes M. Hodgson's seminal work, The History of Islam, 21 saying that he is "fixated" on questions of personal piety. The history of Islam, according to M. Hodgson, is primarily a "spiritual history of individual piety"22. For him, law, economics and politics recede into the background, giving way to art, literature and poetry, making the author a hostage of that very "romantic orientalism".

The ambivalence of Turner's sociology of Islam lies in the fact that, on the one hand, he opposes excessive generalizations in favor of analyzing individual aspects, and, on the other, in favor of studying the system as a whole in the broadest context.

The refusal to consider Islamic civilization as a "thing-in-itself" is another constant of B. Turner's concept. We are talking about the" virtue of cosmopolitanism " (cosmopolitan virtue), which is understood as "the ethical imperative of mutual dialogue, recognition and attention"23. However, recognition of cultural differences does not mean their acceptance. On the contrary, mutual understanding can only be achieved through self-critical understanding. In addition, B. Turner accepts the methodology of Immanuel Wallerstein on world-system analysis, according to which each region of the world can be analyzed only taking into account the global context. For Turner, the world-system approach is important both for the analysis of modernity and for the analysis of history.

It is also interesting to note that when discussing orientalism in the logic of Michel Foucault's "Archeology of Knowledge" 24, Turner also pays critical attention to discourse analysis. "There is nothing outside the text" - this is one of the main post-structuralist principles formulated by J. R. R. Tolkien. Derrida. According to Turner, to say that society is a text is like analyzing English landscapes, limited to 25 maps.

21. Hodgson, M. (1977) The Venture of Islam. Vol. 1 - 3. University Of Chicago Press; Hodgson M. History of Islam. Islamic civilization from birth to our days, Moscow: Eksmo, 2012.

22. Turner, B.S. The Sociology of Islam, p. 87.

23. Ibid., p. 151.

24. Foucault M. Archeology of knowledge: Transl. sfr. / General ed.by B. Levchenko. Kiev: Nika-Center Publ., 1996.

25. Turner, B.S. The Sociology of Islam, p. 97.

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Thus, B. Turner draws from his critical review of the history of Western science a number of methodological principles that form the basis of his own "sociology of Islam". First of all, it is a rejection of orientalism in all its manifestations. Every scientific work on Islam should be an attempt to "break out" of the existing structure of knowledge, which should help to "reduce" orientalism. One of the surest ways to achieve this is to avoid analyzing a particular case through different classifications, typologizations, and generalizations. The main task of the researcher, according to the logic of B. Turner, is to find the optimal balance between "internal" and "external": it is necessary to analyze the selected segment in detail and understand its place in a broader context.

Key problems of the sociology of Islam

A number of works by B. Turner are examples illustrating the approach he developed. He analyzes the problems of multiculturalism in modern Europe, the place of religion in the life of Malaysian women, the radicalization of political Islam, and the transformation of religious power in Islam in the light of the spread of Internet technologies. Although these works are a valuable source of knowledge about modern Islamic societies, it is unlikely that the study of specific issues is the strong point of B. Turner's work. This is especially evident in the example of an article about Islam on the Internet. The article highlights new phenomena concerning the Internet space: the representation of many Sufi movements in it; the active use of the Internet by Muslim diasporas; new electronic forms of dissemination of Islamic knowledge; the phenomenon of" micro-intellectuals " broadcasting their fatwas through video appeals. However, the article seems too theoretical. It does not mention any empirical studies of the Internet space, although there are a huge number of such works: for example, works on " electronic Islam "and"electronic jihad" 26.

26. Arthur, C. (1993) Religion and the Media: An Introductory Reader. Cardiff: University of Wales Press; Bunt, G. (2000) Virtually Islamic Computer-mediated Communication and Cyber Islamic Environments. Cardiff: University of Wales Press; Cobb, J. (1998) Cybergrace The Search for God in the Digital World. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc.;

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Proclaiming the absolute value of discrete analysis and opposing simplifications, B. Turner sometimes raises these principles to an absolute degree and makes factual errors. So, he says that the radical meaning of jihad as a struggle against infidels was developed by Hassan Al-Banna, the founder of the Muslim Brotherhood, in 1928, as a protest against foreign domination in Egypt and the immorality of the European way of life. The mistake is that by attributing the authorship of the radical concept of jihad to H. Al-Banna, Turner rejects the continuity of the established political and philosophical tradition. There are studies that prove that Al-Banna's political views are ideologically derived from the political concepts of Jamal Al-Din Al-Afghani and the Pakistani philosopher and politician Said Abu Ala Maududi.27 As for the radical concept of jihad, it is elaborated in detail only by Said Qutb, a follower of H. Al-Banna, who became the leader of the radical wing of Jamiat al-Islamiyya, which broke away from the Muslim Brotherhood. It is his ideas that underlie the activities of the vast majority of modern organizations of radical political Islam. In addition, we should not forget about the influence of the legacy of Muhammad Abd al-Wahhab, who had a significant impact on modern interpretations of jihad, including the work of S. Qutb, which was also the subject of scientific research.28 Thus, Turner violated the principle of non-separation from the general context that he had proclaimed: one concept became the focus of attention, while a number of similar ideological trends fell out of sight.

Lohlker, R. (2001) Islam im Internet: Neue Formen der Religion im Cyberspace. Hamburg: Deutsches Orient-Instituts [http://univie.academia.edu/R%C3%BCdigerL0 hiker/Papers/239 583/Islam_Im_Internet_Neue_Formen_der_Religion_Im_ Cyberspace, accessed on 18.08.2014].

27. Muqtedar Khan, M. A. (2001) "The Political Philosophy of Islamic Resurgence", Cultural Dynamics 13 (2): 211-229; Mura, A. (2012) "A Genealogical Inquiry into Early Islam: the Discourse of Hasan al-Banna", Journal of Political Ideologies 17 (161-85; Alekseev I. L. Collecting a split Crowd: Fundamentalism as a reinterpretation of Islamic History / / Ab Imperio. 2004. N 3. pp. 513-538.

28. Hosein, J.A (2012) Cross Examination of Sayyid Qutb and Muhammad Ibn Abd Al-Wahhab. A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts, Religious Studies. University of Alberta.

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Summing up, it should be noted the undoubted contribution of B. Turner to overcoming stereotypes about Islam. Islam "happened to be on the cultural fault line" 29 in the confrontation between Islamic civilization and the rest of the world. However, the thesis about the "clash of civilizations" of S. Huntington, which immediately comes to mind, is only one of the many manifestations of orientalist discourse that goes back to the sociology of M. Weber. One of the consequences of the current structure of knowledge is Islamophobia. It is interesting that the scientific study of the phenomenon of Islamophobia itself often also becomes a hostage of orientalist discourse: researchers focus on the conflict potential of Islam, ignoring its numerous forms as a religion, cultural tradition and socio-political system.

B. Turner's Sociology of Islam is an attempt to generalize the principles that make it possible to study Islam in all its complexity and versatility. The main thing is the rejection of any form of orientalism and the most detailed analysis of particular aspects without taking them out of the general context. B. Turner's works change the existing structure of knowledge about Islam, and the theory developed by him encourages scientists to review established knowledge and approaches.

Bibliography / References

Alekseev I. L. Collecting the Split Ummah: Fundamentalism as a Reinterpretation of Islamic History / / Ab Imperio. 2004. N 3. pp. 513-538.

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Alekseev, I. L. (2004) "Sobiranie raskolotoj ummy: fundamentalizm kak reinterpretacija islamskoj istorii" [Unification of a divided umma: fundamentalism as a re-interpretation of Islamic history], Ab Imperio 3: 513 - 538.

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29. Turner, B. S. The Sociology of Islam, p. 176.

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Weber, M. (1967; first edition -1917 - 1919) Ancient Judaism. Free Press.

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