In the summer of 2003, representatives of the Jain community in Moscow asked the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences to consider holding a joint Indian-Russian peace march from Delhi to Moscow to promote the principle of nonviolence, and the main participant of this march was to be a Jain ascetic monk. An unusual proposal for some time attracted the attention of the Russian scientific community to Jainism. Perhaps this was the main goal of the initiators of the march.

Jainism is one of the oldest teachings in India. Jains do not accept the authority of the Vedic scriptures, do not believe in the existence of a creator God. The object of worship for them are the teachers-tirthankaras (literally, "creator of the ferry, ford, path"), who, according to the beliefs of Jain adherents, periodically reincarnate (reincarnate) to preach and update the teachings. According to Jain traditions, their religion has existed almost since prehistoric times, and in ancient times was spread throughout India.

The Jain community is divided into two main groups, the Digambaras ("clothed in space") and the Svetambaras ("clothed in white"), each of which splits into several other religious movements. The total number of the Jain community is about 4 million adherents in India and about 100 thousand more outside its borders.

Lay Jains are successful in business, hold high positions in government, law, and the military*, and are active in the political and social life of the country. The spiritual practice of Jain ascetics is aimed at achieving the liberation of the soul from the shackles of matter that bind it. In order to prevent their souls from becoming attached to the material world, monks are constantly traveling, and they cannot stay in one place for more than a month, except during the rainy season. The canon prohibits monks from using modern modes of transport, so their wanderings, mainly on foot, are mainly limited to the borders of India.

The planned march from Delhi to Moscow was also to be on foot. This is the first attempt in the history of Jainism to organize a hike over such a long distance. At the same time, it was assumed that the march would be public, and the monk would be accompanied by scientists, journalists from the information support group, and even a field kitchen. However, the complexity of the project was that the hike was 14 thousand kilometers long. The km would have taken at least a year, and its implementation was obviously difficult and risky, if only because the route had to pass through either politically unstable areas of Afghanistan or Pakistan, or through the passes of the high Pamirs that are difficult to pass in winter. For these and other reasons, the project was not implemented. However, despite the unusual and even exotic nature of the proposal itself, Jain businessmen expressed their willingness to invest significant funds in financing this event.

It should also be noted that, despite the aforementioned ban on the use of modern transport by ascetic Jain monks, several representatives of this monastic community arrived in Moscow in 2004 for the XXXVII International Congress of Orientalists, who received special permits to travel abroad.

For many centuries, their monastic community was considered closed and archaic. The presence of Jain monks at the Congress of Orientalists and the aforementioned attempt to organize a march to Russia clearly indicate that qualitatively new changes are taking place among Jains.

My field observations in India began in 2006 with the search for an answer to this question: what exactly is new and why? ¹

A LITTLE BACKGROUND

In academic science, the founder of Jainism is considered to be the spiritual master Vardhamana, who lived in the VI century BC.-

* The practice of military affairs by lay Jains does not, as it may seem, contradict the ideal of nonviolence. The doctrine of nonviolence allows for the necessary defense of one's country and recognizes that some degree of harm is unavoidable for lay people. Complete rejection of violence is mandatory only for ascetics.

page 66

over thirty years of asceticism and attainment of the state of kevala (lit., "higher knowledge and liberation from the mundane") he received the titles of Jin ("Winner") from his followers and Mahavira ("The Great Hero"). The Jain doctrine is based on the idea of the existence of the soul (jiva) in all living beings, and even in every particle of earth, water, air and fire. In this regard, special importance is attached to the idea of nonviolence (ahimsa principle).

In ancient and medieval times, Jainism was a widespread religion in various parts of India, enjoyed the patronage of the authorities and played a significant role in the development of Indian culture.

From about the twelfth century, the influence of the ancient tradition began to wane as Shaivism and Vishnuism rose in India. In the following centuries, there was a gradual conversion of Jains to Hinduism, and the size of the community greatly decreased. The Jain ascetics were no longer as diligent in following the canon, nor were they as enthusiastic in their preaching and proselytizing. Little by little, Jainism absorbed many of the customs of Hinduism and adopted its caste system.

Serious concerns about the steady decline in the size of the Jain community began to be expressed by its leaders at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. They recognized that caste, low education of spiritual teachers, conservatism and sectarianism led to the decline of Jainism. The need for changes that could prevent further degradation of the community was recognized.

Since 1893, the Jains began to hold annual conferences, which raised issues of strengthening the community, weakened by dogmatic and social divisions, preventing believers from leaving it, and spoke about the need for religious teachers to receive a modern education. A number of socio-religious movements that emerged in the Jain community at that time advocated the prohibition of child marriage and the improvement of the status of women. The issue of prohibiting the initiation of minor children into ascetic monks who are not yet able to make an independent decision about their future was considered. Jain sacred texts were also translated into local and later European languages.

The Orthodox, who did not want to open access to the manuscripts, opposed the conversions. But gradually, as the followers of Hinduism began to print their own scriptures, the conservative movement in Jainism also gradually declined, and publishing activities began to develop.

In the second half of the 20th century, the flow of Jain migrants outside India increased. The most numerous Jain communities are now found in North America, the United Kingdom, and East Africa.

The Jain diaspora notes that in the new environment, it is difficult for Jains to preserve traditional values. Having adopted Western norms, many women in Jain families began to work on an equal basis with men. The religious customs of the community are no longer strictly observed. Young people do not have enough opportunities for religious education.

Such trends are worrisome for leaders of the Jain diaspora who are interested in preserving traditional norms. Since the 1980s, they have established centers and associations that promote Jain values and coordinate activities, negotiate the creation of an international secretariat and a unified infrastructure to promote the ideas of Jainism around the world.

Jains living abroad are deprived of spiritual guidance, as ascetics, with rare exceptions, do not leave their homeland. Meanwhile, throughout history, it was the close interaction of monks and lay people that was one of the main factors that preserved Jainism. Therefore, today Jains are actively discussing the issue of creating a monastic community in its updated form, capable of existing abroad.

JAIN REFORMERS

Monks also do not stand aside from the problems of adapting Jainism to modern conditions and offer their own solutions. In recent decades, the activity of the Terapantha monastic community has attracted the greatest interest in this regard. It was the adherents of this tradition who initiated the march and attended the International Congress of Orientalists in Moscow.

The Terapantha community was founded in 1760 by a Bhikkhu monk who believed that the behavior of ascetics began to diverge from the canonical rules. He advocated more strict adherence to the ancient precepts, supported by 13 monks and 13 lay people (hence the name of this tradition - tera-means thirteen, panth-path, group). The distinctive features of the terapantha movement are that its followers do not worship the sacred images of the first teachers-the tirthankaras. The community (about 500 thousand lay people and 700 ascetics) is under the leadership of only one acharya (spiritual leader), has a clear organization, strict discipline, and most carefully observes asceticism.

* Vishnuism, Shaivism-trends in Hinduism.

** Active religious propaganda activities aimed at attracting new adherents.

page 67

The followers of Terapanthas divide their history into three periods. The first (1760-1851) was the time of the leadership of the first three spiritual teachers, when the number of followers gradually began to grow and the charter of terapanthas was developed. In the second period (1851-1936), more attention was paid to the management and organization of the community. At the same time, the first steps were taken in the direction of improving education (in particular, the issue of deepening the education of nuns, which previously was not given due attention compared to the education of male monks). The third period began in 1936 and continues to this day. This was the time of the leadership of Acharya Tulsi (1914-1997) and his successor Acharya Mahapragya (b. 1920). Their leadership is responsible for the most significant transformations in the life of the Terapantha Jains.

The first transformative step of Acharya Tulsi was the establishment of a religious educational institute in 1949. It began to teach mumuksha (literally, "one who is free from desires") - applicants for initiation into monasticism. Previously, there was no special system for training candidates for monks.

It should be noted that Tulsi's reforms began in the early years of India's independence. The atmosphere of that time - freedom of thought, awareness of new opportunities, and at the same time the aggravation of existing national problems - inspired the Terapantha leader to direct efforts to spread Jain values in order to "morally transform humanity."

In 1949, he founded the social movement Anuvrat (lit., "small vows"), which unites people regardless of caste, faith, nationality and aims at moral improvement of society through following moral rules in behavior. Traveling through India with his followers, Tulsi taught that moral behavior is more important than observing religious rituals, that spiritual ethics, which form a universal worldview, are higher than sectarian dogmas, and that religious precepts should not be followed to achieve happiness in the future life,but should be linked to solving today's problems. ² In 1993, Tulsi was awarded the Indira Gandhi Award for Promoting National Progress.

LAY PEOPLE, MONKS, AND SAMANIS...

Until the mid-twentieth century, the influence of the Terapanthas was limited to the state of Rajasthan. Tulsi extended this influence to much of India, as well as Nepal and Bhutan.

In 1980, Acharya Tulsi decided to establish a number of non-canonical rules, within which he announced the creation of a new category within the community - saman*. This category of Jain adherents has some characteristics of a spiritual order and occupies an intermediate position between monks and lay people. The rules of conduct established for them are less strict than for ascetic monks. They are allowed to travel abroad, use transport, money, and means of communication. Samanom is allowed, if necessary, to live in one place for a long time, to make trips at night. All these actions are traditionally forbidden to ascetics.

The idea of creating such a category of followers of Jainism originated long ago, more than thirty years ago. But it seems that the discussion was conducted only at the highest level of the hierarchy, because until the time of Sri Tulsi's decision, most members of the religious community did not know about it, and immediately after it was announced, there was no clear understanding of the idea. Meanwhile, Acharya Tulsi predicted: "This event will be truly significant, but only time will show its true significance." ³

The category of samanas is the next step after the category of mumukshus, candidates for initiation. And initially it was assumed that there were both saman brothers and samani sisters. However, it so happened that the first members of the "order of samanas" were several girls initiated from mumukshu. Currently, their number has already increased to more than a hundred people, but the initial trend has remained the same: only girls (samani) become members of the new order today. Men, on the other hand, since there are much fewer of them in the monastic community, are excluded and given the right to be ordained immediately as monks (after appropriate training). Widows and elderly women are also immediately accepted as nuns.

Before being initiated into samani, mumuksha students receive a secular and religious education for 5 to 7 years. During their training, they practice the vow of chastity, fast twice a month, and perform religious rituals on the days of the full moon and new moon. They are not allowed to leave their place of residence without permission, and their visits with relatives are limited.

Along with the ancient languages of Prakrit and Sanskrit, Mumuksha is taught in modern languages such as Hindi, Gujarati, and English. Taking into account individual abilities and needs, teachers of singing, painting, and literature are sometimes invited for private lessons from outside. During the training, the degree of readiness of the mumukshu for ascetic life is determined.

After passing the initiation, the samanis are divided into groups, each with at least four people. As a rule, they travel in pairs (both for security reasons and to control each other's behavior). Like ascetic monks, samanis travel all the time (the direction of their movement is determined by the acarya), but for two months of the year they gather and live all in one place. Most often, this place is a small town Ladnu in the state of Rajasthan. There is a Jain institute founded in 1970 (since 1991 it has received the status of a university), open to all members of the community, and not only Jains.

Although Tolkachanth Jains do not have monasteries or permanent residence, the university grounds can be called a" home " for Samanis and a kind of general information center for Jains. In addition to the university, there is a college, an Ayurvedic center, a meditation and yoga training center, and a library containing more than 50 thousand books and ancient maas.-

* The Prakrit (derived from Sanskrit) word saman, meaning "ascetic", is explained by the Jains themselves as " having diligence, maintaining balance and communicating with everyone on an equal footing."

page 68

nuskriptov, art gallery. In the desert of Rajasthan, this area with beautiful buildings among trees and flowers looks like an oasis.

However, there are not many students here, as Jainology classes do not promise high earnings in the future. Young people tend to go to big cities. Young people's conscious acceptance of self-discipline and the spiritual values preached by Jainism remains a difficult problem to solve, especially since many teachers with conservative views are not inclined to look for new approaches to teaching. However, the university plays a major role in the education of Jain monasticism.

Members of the community of all categories (ascetics, lay people and samanis) have their own initiation rituals (diksha). The samani initiation ritual was developed personally by Acharya Tulsi.

There are two types of diksha: temporary and lifelong. The first type offers almost any person to join the spiritual life of Jains for a certain period of time.⁴ This short-lived ritual involves changing clothes, adopting samani rules of conduct, and taking a vow of abstinence from violence.

Joining the Saman order for life is, on the contrary, a big and solemn event. Several people can be initiated at the same time. The ceremony is usually attended by numerous relatives, the number of spectators sometimes reaches several thousand people. Candidates must provide the acharya with the written consent of their relatives, which is read out at the beginning of the ceremony, after which the acharya gives his blessing.

Mandatory elements of diksha include cutting your hair as a sign of renunciation of the mundane (then the hair is cut twice a year) and changing your clothes. White clothes for samanis and ascetics are almost identical, only the former additionally wear a white jacket. Unlike ascetics, samanis do not use a broom and are not required to wear a mask at all times. They just carry a handkerchief that they hold to their mouth when they talk.

Like ascetics, Samanis follow the five basic precepts of the founder of Jainism, Maha-vira - nonviolence and reverence for all living things, truthfulness, abstinence from theft, chastity, and non-attachment to all worldly things. Fulfilling the commandment of non-harming even the smallest living beings requires vigilance when walking, talking, eating, and even when performing natural tasks.

Samani's life is regulated by special rules. They were compiled in 1991 by Acharya Tulsi. These rules are not canonical and, unlike the latter, can adapt to changing conditions. However, the fundamental principles remain unchanged. In particular, the principle of unified leadership of the acharya, who personally makes all important decisions and chooses his own successor, remains unchanged. The rules contain a very large number of restrictions related to the use of certain types of food, the use of the benefits of civilization, which should contribute to the achievement of the main goal of Jainism - the liberation of the soul from "karmic matter".

The rules concerning monastic life are also not firmly established once and for all. In their diaries, which monks and samanis are accustomed to keep, they regularly note, among other things, problems or inconveniences that arise in connection with any new life circumstances. Later, following joint discussions of these observations and diary entries, amendments and additions to existing norms and regulations are adopted.⁵

It is characteristic that the latest innovations mostly concern various eases and the removal of a number of restrictions. For example, the ban on sleeping during the day has been lifted, and now you can rest for half an hour after eating;

* A mask covering the mouth and a broom used by ascetic monks to sweep the ground in front of them so as not to step on any insect are characteristic attributes of Jain monks associated with the idea of not harming anything living, even the smallest organisms.

page 69

morning tea is allowed (previously it was forbidden to drink tea and coffee at all as containing toxicants). Due to the heavy workload of training and frequent travel, samanis can sometimes reduce the meditation time from 45 minutes to 30. Among these now-defunct rules, there is also a ban on taking photos, but currently it is no longer enforced. On the contrary, as the author could judge, both ascetics and samanis are photographed very willingly today, moreover, sometimes they are upset if they did not turn out quite well in the pictures.

In addition to learning languages and Jainology itself, Samanis are taught programs of social and religious activities aimed at implementing the ideas of Jainism. The two main ones are preksha meditation and a special system of children's education - "Science of Life".

Meditation is an important part of spiritual practice, both for ascetics and lay people. The system of preksha dhyan ("concentration on perception"), developed by the current head of the terapantha Mahapragya movement, is considered one of the most serious practices among Jains of various kinds. Calls for nonviolence and morality should be accompanied by an effective tool that encourages introspection. Preksha dhyan is considered such a tool.

Practical lay Jains, having commercialized the practice of meditation, have established a large number of centers for training instructors of this system. Preksha dhyan wellness courses are quite effective in treating heart disease, diabetes, asthma, and high blood pressure. In addition to India, several similar centers are organized in America and England. Recently, attempts have been made to organize preksha centers in Russia as well.

Adaptation of preksha practice for children created the discipline "Science of Life". This synthetic program, which summarizes the knowledge of anatomy, psychology, biochemistry, sociology, yoga and philosophy, is currently being tested in general education schools in several states of India, and in the state of Rajasthan it has been officially approved by the Ministry of Education.

It should be noted that Jain spiritual leaders define Jainism as a spiritual concept that is relevant to all of humanity. Acharya Mahapragya bluntly wrote that among the Jains, " the question of presenting the Jain doctrine on the world stage has already been discussed, and in the future it is necessary to deploy well-thought-out programs to implement this."⁶. Most likely, social and religious programs are part of a broader plan to spread Jainism. Currently, samani regularly visits about 40 countries, promoting ethical principles, teaching the "Science of Life", organizing various conferences, seminars," nonviolence trainings", meditation camps.

Thus, samanis are both intermediaries between ascetics and the outside world, and support for Jains living abroad. There are cases when monks of other Jain sects break with asceticism, come abroad and organize their own centers there. In India, they are often condemned, as they are formally violators of tradition. On the contrary, Samanis who are spiritually knowledgeable and knowledgeable in modern sciences and whose behavior is legalized are respected.

Focused on the idea of liberation, detachment from the mortal world, and adhering to strict rules, samanis do not look dry, strict, or aloof. Their friendly attitude towards foreigners can, of course, be explained by the desire to win over themselves, to interest in their tradition, but still their sincerity, benevolence, and desire to help in everything seemed genuine to the author.

Against the background of the already familiar meagre furnishings of Samani's living rooms - low tables and desks with books, several food and drink vessels and bedding made of thick cardboard, on which both people sit and sleep - it was surprising to suddenly see a walkman, a pocket computer translator and a newspaper with crosswords. However, these items belonged to the samani Mangalpragya, who has the status of deputy head of all samanis and directs their international activities.

Today, even during the most important rituals that require concentration, aspiration, and collective performance of certain movements, Jains are allowed a certain amount of freedom: they are allowed to change their posture if they feel uncomfortable, and even go to the toilet if necessary. Such deviations are not perceived as disdain, but indicate a gradual departure from extremes in the way of life, from a dogmatic attitude to organizational rules. Flexibility, naturalness of behavior in compliance with discipline and high ethical standards, faith and devotion to the teachings of Mahavira, a combination of religious and secular education, a broad view of the world due to foreign trips - these qualities I would like to highlight, summarizing the image of samani.

New forms of activity, the solution of the problem of education, the size of the community, and its prestige were made possible largely due to the creation of the Order of Samans - an intermediate stage of half-Worldly-half-Ascetics. Thus, time really proves the sagacity of Sri Tulsi's words about the gradual increase in the significance of this innovation.

EXPANDING THE BOUNDARIES

Currently, Acharya Mahapragya is developing the activities started by Tulsi and is actively involved in the religious and social life of India. Since 2001, he has been the head of the Ahimsi Yatra Nonviolence Marches. Such marches are obligatory journeys for monks, which, unlike in previous decades, are now accompanied by quite extensive advertising. Special attention is paid to the promotion of nonviolence and other fundamental principles of Jainism. Staying for several days in each village on the march path, Acharya Mahapragya and his followers hold meetings with lay people, seminars, and meditations for the population.

Ahimsa Yatra, held in Gujarat in 2002, played a positive role in easing internal political tensions in that state, after clashes between Hindus and Muslims occurred there. In the same year, 2002, Mahapragya's work was awarded the Indira Gandhi Award, and was approved not only by Indian scientists.

page 70

leaderboards. Thus, the President of Pakistan Pervez Musharraf praised the mission of the acharya, and expressed hope that Ahimsa Yatra will come to Pakistan and contribute to creating an atmosphere of peace and harmony there.⁷

In October 2003, at the initiative of Acharya Mahapragya, fifteen spiritual leaders of various faiths signed the Surat Spiritual Declaration in the presence of President⁸. This declaration, while recognizing the importance of economic, scientific and technological development, emphasizes the importance of spiritual development for solving national problems.

The Declaration outlines five main projects:: 1. Holding inter-religious festivals. 2. Joint religious projects. 3. Learning in an atmosphere of unity of religions. 4. Interfaith dialogue. 5. Creation of national independent organizations headed by religious and spiritual leaders, as well as scientists and educators.

To support and coordinate these activities, the Foundation for Unity of Religions and Enlightened Citizenship was established in June 2004.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, not all books on Jainism even mentioned the Terapantha community among the numerous religious movements. Even 50 years ago, the community was considered insignificant, closed and backward. Today, according to Karan Singh, a prominent scholar and public figure in modern India, Acharya Mahapragya is one of the largest religious leaders in India. His social and religious projects find support in the ruling circles.

One of the reasons for the successful activity and increasing popularity of terapanthas lies, in our opinion, in strict adherence to the principle of leadership of one acharya. In other Jain traditions, many groups, sometimes very small, co-exist, each led by its own mentor. The problem of fragmentation and lack of unified governance among Jains has been and remains, despite repeated attempts to reach agreement on this issue. Against this background, the centralized, well-organized Terapantha community demonstrates the ability of Jains to adapt to the changing conditions of our time.

Among the traditional religions of India, Jainism, perhaps, retained its archaic appearance longer than others, did not differ in noticeable social activity and obvious tendencies to proselytism. However, modern trends of modernization and globalization have also affected traditionally conservative Jainism. This was manifested, in particular, in the reduction of the role of ritual in the life of the community, in the increase in the importance of social service, in the desire to free oneself from the narrow confessional context, in overcoming national borders.

The efforts of Jains today are aimed at recognizing Jainism as a world religion. At the same time, they emphasize the ethical side of the teaching; it is promoted not as a religious system, but rather as a universal spiritual way of life. Without detracting from the sincerity of the moral aspirations of Jain followers, I would like to note that, by fitting themselves into the global space, they, of course, pursue quite earthly interests.

Globalization, as we know, leads to a blurring of the boundaries of identity. However, this, oddly enough, corresponds to the principles of Jainism to some extent, at least it fits well into its modern context. By asserting themselves as carriers of universal ideas and values that are significant for all, and realizing their spiritual potential in a particular society, Jain adherents maintain, strengthen and expand their own positions and influence on society. Although the peace march that we mentioned at the beginning of the article did not take place, the" march " of Jainism around the world has already begun.

¹ Jainism came to the attention of academic scholars more than 120 years ago, but it is still poorly understood. This religion became an independent field of scientific research with the publication in 1884 of the book "Jaina Sutras" by the German Orientalist G. Jacobi. Pioneers in the study of Jainism were H. Kolebrook, A. Weber, E. Leuman. In the 20th century, the most important works were those of J. L. Jaini, G. von Glasenapp, N. Tatia, V. Sangave, V. Shubring, S. Dasgupta, A. K. Chatterjee, and others. Although there are a fair number of serious works on Jain doctrine and philosophy, they are significantly fewer than those on Buddhism and Hinduism. There is even less research on Jainism in Russian Oriental studies. Among the Russian works is N. R. Guseva's monograph "Jainism", published in 1968. The works of A. A. Terentyev, V. K. Shokhin, N. A. Zheleznova, and A. A. Tkacheva are devoted to religious and philosophical aspects of Jainism. Since the 1980s, European and American Jainologists have shifted the focus of their research from philology, archeology, and art to the study of current trends in the development of the Jain tradition, using the methods of social and cultural anthropology. D. Kort, L. Babb, F. Granoff, P. Barcelovich, N. Balbir, P. Flugel and others are working in this direction. Unfortunately, most of their work is difficult to access. To the best of the author's knowledge, no studies of the current state of the Jain community are currently being conducted in Russia.

^{Yuvacharya Mahapragya.} 2 Acharya Tulsi. A Peacemaker par Excellence. Ladnun, Jain Vishva Bharati, 2000.

^{Acharya Mahapragya.} 3 Steering the wheel of dhamma (A Biography of Acharya Sri Tulsi). Ladnun, Jain Vishva Bharati, 1994, p. 261.

⁴ The Saman Order is also open to foreigners. The head of Samani Akshaypragya told the author about several temporary converts (for a month or six months) from Germany, Japan, America, and Holland. Depending on their needs, they strive to develop will, discipline, or get rid of diseases, and develop creative abilities. In general, for them, temporary diksha is an opportunity to complete a certain practice for their internal development, and for Jains - an additional chance to attract new followers.

⁵ The final verdict on the entry into force of these changes is, of course, made by the acarya.

^{Acharya Mahapragya.} 6 Steering the wheel of dhamma ..., p. 185.

⁷ http://www.jainology.org/viewindex.asp?article_id=News_Musharaf_Acharya

^{Surat Spiritual Declaration.} 8 Ladnun, Jain Vishva Bharati, 2003.

Permanent link to this publication: