Kolkata: Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Institute of Asian Studies, 2003. 240 p.*

(c) 2004

The history of Russia over the last hundred years has generated several powerful waves of emigration. The problems of the diaspora have become particularly important for the public opinion and scientific circles of our country in the last 15 years, when a significant part of the Russian and Russian-speaking population in the former Soviet republics suddenly felt like "non-citizens", "alien occupiers", "undesirable immigrants". In this context, the study of diaspora issues in other countries, including India, can be of great interest. The global Indian diaspora now numbers at least 20 million people who live in many countries. Various types of interaction between Indian migrants and the local population form a complex mosaic picture that allows us to discern and try to anticipate certain aspects of the general problem of non-native population staying in the native environment. In almost 150 years of active immigration, Indians have had to deal with many of the problems that our compatriots are currently experiencing or that they may face if they suddenly find themselves strangers in their country.

Prepared by the Maulana Abul Kalam Institute for Asian Studies (Calcutta), the collection includes articles not only by Indian scientists working at home or in other countries, but also by foreign authors. Conditionally, all the articles in the collection can be viewed once-

* Indians abroad. Edited by S. D. Singh, M. Singh. Calcutta: Maulana Abdul Kalam Institute of Research, 2003. 240 p.

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It can be divided into two groups: historical and cultural and political and economic. In general, this division seems justified, since, for example, today we can talk about the presence of Indians in Central Asian countries, as the author of one of the articles D. Kaushik (Univ. Jawaharlal Nehru, India), can be used mainly in historical terms. In general, this topic should be especially closely and nostalgically perceived in our country, since one of the most striking episodes of millennial ties between India and the Central Asian countries is the presence here in the first post-revolutionary years of a significant number of Indian revolutionaries who hoped to help Soviet Russia liberate India from colonial dependence. I would like to note that this issue has been largely investigated by Soviet historians, to whom the author refers extensively and actively ¹ .

Inevitably, the description of the stay of Indians in France, made by S. Berte (University of Nantes), turned out to be cultural and historical in nature. In the period he considered, from the late nineteenth century to the mid-1930s, their numbers were limited to a few dozen, at best hundreds of pearl merchants, aristocrats, and revolutionaries. As a national minority, Indians in France have never been a significant force, losing in number and influence to other ethnic groups, mostly from former French colonies.

However, the almost equally retrospective style of research on the vicissitudes of the stay of Indian immigrants in a number of other countries, for example in Burma, authored by S. Bhattacharya (Calcutta University), causes some surprise. Unlike France, Burma is one of the countries where the total number of immigrants from India was the largest. In the early 1930s, according to some estimates, more than a million immigrants from the neighboring country lived here [Listopadov, 1995, pp. 10-11]. After the establishment of a military dictatorship in Burma in 1962, their situation became particularly complicated. Economic and other measures were taken against the Indians. In particular, the military regime did everything possible to prevent Indians from obtaining Burmese citizenship. National strife was further complicated by religious strife. Most of the Hindustan Islanders living in Burma today are Bengali Muslims (Rohingya). During the 1970s and 1980s, they continued to gradually infiltrate the Arakan region of Burma, adjacent to the territory of modern Bangladesh. Several Rohingya separatist movements are still active in Arakan, aiming to separate the region from Burma. In the early 1990s, the Burmese authorities took harsh measures against them, resorting to outright repression, and forced 265,000 Muslims to flee to neighboring Bangladesh, which caused the anger of Islamic countries and additional problems for Burma in the international arena [Listopadov, 1998, p. 162]. Although these events are not formally directly related to India, it is worth recalling that Bangladesh and Indian West Bengal are inhabited by the same people - Bengalis, and among the Rohingya there are descendants of immigrants from India proper. Moreover, the footnotes to the article mention at least two works by S. Bhattacharya on the Rohingya problem, dated 2001 and 2002 (p. 202).

The Indian researcher in her article draws a very detailed picture of the stay of Indians in Burma, provided with numerous factual data presented in the form of tables. The undoubted merit of the author can be considered the mention of the works of other researchers who wrote about various aspects of the stay of Indians in this country. The author aims to show the contribution that Indian immigrants made to the development of Burma, especially its capital Rangoon. In no other country, S. Bhattacharya notes, did Indians feel so comfortable, and no other people considered Indians as close to themselves as the Burmese. However, it was in Burma that the presence of Indians led to perhaps the greatest tension in their relations with the local population and caused the excesses of the 1950s and 1960s, which led to their mass flight from this country. Up to 150,000 people fled to India alone (p. 198). The question of how all this happened and why - perhaps the most important one when considering this topic-is not analyzed in the article. In those places where it is impossible to avoid mentioning such sad events, the author places the main blame for them on the colonial British authorities. At the same time, activities, for example, in-

¹ One can note, for example, G. L. Dmitriev's monograph "Indian Revolutionaries in Central Asia" published by the same Maulan Abul Kalam Institute of Asian Studies in Calcutta in India in 2002 (Dmitriev, 2002).

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Indian money lenders (chettiar) It is described almost in terms of modern investment policy, although it is known that it was the Indian moneylenders who caused the main anger and indignation of the local population not only in Burma, but also in many other countries (pp. 188-189).

It seems that the article by S. D. Singh (University of Queensland, Australia), devoted to the stay of Indians in Fiji, turned out to be much more even. In 2000, the entire world witnessed a coup carried out by a group of nationalist Fijian military officers under the leadership of J. R. R. Tolkien. Speight, who overthrew the legitimate government headed by a representative of the Indian majority of the country's population. The author of the article carefully traces the origins of the confrontation between the two main ethnic groups of the population of Fiji, starting with the arrival of the first group of indentured Indian workers for intensive plantation work in 1879 (p. 206). The development of their relations with the local population was initially distorted due to the policy of the colonial authorities, who defended the interests of Fijian tribal leaders and did not allow the Indians to acquire land. Up to 83% of all Fijian land was legally assigned to tribal leaders, who actively leased it to Indian settlers who decided to stay in Fiji after their five-year contract ended.

The article describes the appalling living conditions of the first settlers in Fiji, their virtually complete lack of rights and the arbitrariness of the colonial authorities, which caused a wave of public protests in India and forced the British authorities to finally release the contracted Indian coolies from their obligations by 1920 (p.212). However, the social status of Indians as the lowest class of Fijian society has not changed much. The rapid growth of the Indian population of the islands caused fear of losing power among the Fijian elite and the small white population. The Constitution of 1963 established the Fijian State system, which guaranteed the last two groups, which made up no more than half of the total population of the islands, two-thirds of the seats in government (p. 221).

The author considers the subsequent political development of the country as a struggle of the Indian majority for their rights, often complicated by deep disagreements among the Indians themselves. Several subsequent Fijian constitutions did not guarantee the Indian majority equal rights with the indigenous people, whose will was effectively usurped by the Grand Council of Chiefs of Fiji, which was afraid of losing power. A series of military coups and permanent political instability are seriously undermining Fiji's economic development. The most talented and energetic people continue to leave the country. Deep knowledge of the problem and probably personal involvement in recent events in Fiji give S. D. Singh's work a special brightness and authenticity. At the same time, the abundance of factual material in the presentation of events is not supplemented by a deep analysis of the ongoing processes and is characterized by a noticeable subjectivity.

Two small but very interesting articles are devoted to the problems of the existence of Indian communities in Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana. A. Besseser (University of the West Indies, Trinidad and Tobago) examines the impact of gender factors on the political development of multicultural and multiracial societies in two Caribbean countries. The author pays special attention to the connection of political instability and interethnic tension with the lack of representation of women at various levels of government in both countries. Much attention is paid to the analysis of the reasons for the relatively lower representation of women of Indian descent in the political and public life of Guyana and Trinidad compared to women of African descent. According to A. Besseser, despite the higher level of education, Indian women still experience strong pressure from traditional cultural stereotypes, especially characteristic of the Hindu part of the Indian community.

The article by J. G. La Guerre (University of the West Indies, Trinidad and Tobago) is devoted to the problem of the influence of interethnic relations on the political structure and political life of two Caribbean states. The author seeks to apply the concept of the so-called divided society as a tool of political analysis for studying the processes of political evolution of both societies. He notes that the interethnic tension between the descendants of Africans and Indian immigrants, which had existed since the time of colonial rule, later transformed into the struggle of political parties, which actually became "ethnic clubs". This process was particularly acute in poor, agricultural Guyana, where the majority of the population was descended from Indians under the dominance of Africans in power structures. According to the author, the geographical position of the country on the

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the South American continent and the support of the leaders of the Indian community for the ideas of socialism and the policy of the USSR contributed to the formation of a sense of "special purpose" among local Indians and led to greater political activity (p. 107).

The development of the situation in Trinidad and Tobago, notes J. G. La Guerre, whose public sphere was also dominated by Africans, was largely determined by the smaller proportion of the Indian population here in the 1956-1960 years and, accordingly, their greater willingness to put up with the existing state of affairs. The presence of a significant (up to 18%) mixed population group, which is a kind of balance in the political struggle between the two communities, as well as the development of valuable natural resources (oil and gas), largely predetermined the relatively stable and sustainable development of Trinidad (p.109). In general, J. G. La Guerre concludes, politics in divided societies carries a certain internal contradiction: politicians are faced with the need to reconcile the interests of different groups of the population and at the same time face the danger of losing the trust of their own group.

Both articles are characterized by a clear commitment to certain concepts used by the authors as tools for analyzing problems of interest to them. At the same time, some narrowness of the selected topics and, especially, the lack of factual material do not allow us to create a complete picture of the presence of Indian communities in the Caribbean States. The reader who is not very familiar with the realities of these countries will hardly get any complete picture of the past and present state of affairs. However, it is difficult to address this remark to the authors of the articles themselves. Rather, it refers to the compilers of the collection and its editors.

Four more articles are devoted to the problems of the Indian diaspora's presence in developed Western countries - the USA, Canada, and Great Britain. These, probably the most complete and informative parts of the collection, which are provided with a large number of maps, tables, and graphs, mainly analyze the reasons for the relatively successful adaptation of Indians in Western societies. Article by H. S. Singh (India), etc. Day (Singapore) is sometimes reminiscent of the report on the success achieved by Indians in the United States in moving up the social and economic ladder. The information provided in this article is very interesting about the activities of the Committee on the Indian Diaspora, established under the Government of India under the leadership of Dr. L. M. Singhvi (pp. 43-47). The commission's recommendations are a well-developed plan to strengthen ties between India and the diaspora countries, especially the United States, which involves making extensive use of the latter's capabilities.

The article by N. K. Jha (University of Pondicherry, India)is more analytical in nature and, in addition to historical references, reveals the methods of work of organizations of the US Indian community to promote their interests in the power circles of Washington. The main importance, as can be understood, is attached to the work of Indians in the US Congress and the formation of influential lobbying groups from among American congressmen who sympathize with them. The author emphasizes the importance of overcoming disunity within the community itself and combining its efforts in joint actions with organizations of other minorities, and encourages American Indians to learn from the experience of the Jewish, African, and Spanish-speaking diasporas.

An article by D. S. Tatla (Coventry University, Great Britain), devoted to the history of the stay of Indians in the former imperial metropolis of Great Britain, has not so much a political but rather a historical and cultural connotation. The author pays great attention to their contribution to modern British culture and public life, emphasizes the diversity of cultural traditions of the Indian community of the country. According to the author, the acquisition of new social and economic statuses by Indians was largely determined by the origin of immigrants: most Gujaratis became merchants, and a significant part of Sikhs joined the ranks of the working class (pp. 116-1120). Unfortunately, the article pays little attention to the political activities of the Indian community and some of the really acute issues of its stay in the UK. D. S. Tatla clearly avoids talking about interethnic tensions in the former industrial centers of Northern and Central England, in a number of cities of which by the end of the XX century the white population was in the minority. Nor does he mention the activities of Muslim extremist organizations in the UK, including those originating from Kashmir.

Among the reviewed articles, the work of J. V. Volker (University of Waterloo, Canada), which is devoted not so much to the peculiarities of the stay of Indians in Canada, but rather to the change in the attitude of Canadians to Asian, in particular Indian, immigrants and related changes in Canadian immigration policy, stands out somewhat. The author tries to fit certain details of the situation of Indians in Canada into the general context of historical development

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countries. He traces the inherent connection of the process of adaptation of Asian minorities to the position of Canada within the British Empire and changes in the self-consciousness of Canadians, the transformation of their perception of their country from an "imperial outpost" to a multicultural and multiracial modern society. The small volume of the article does not allow the author to supplement his work with any interesting details. However, the Canadian scientist cites a significant number of quotations and excerpts from official documents, speeches of political and public figures, which, of course, increases the already high quality of the material, making it very interesting and informative.

Article by A. Dubey (Univ. Jawaharlal Nehru, India) addresses one of the most painful issues for Indian foreign policy and the Indian diaspora - the stay of Indians in African countries. This broad and complex topic is full of many difficult and sometimes tragic pages, but it also demonstrates the possibilities of successful interaction between the African and Indian communities and gives hope for their mutually beneficial cooperation. The author was faced with the task of combining various, often contradictory facts with a proper level of analysis of the problem and the need to give a holistic assessment of this largely unique historical experience. The scientist is forced to be very brief, almost concisely describing the many events that took place: the migration of Indians to Africa, their transformation into a kind of buffer between the European colonial elite and the local black population, the struggle for their rights within the framework of colonial societies, attempts, generally not very successful, to establish contacts with African politicians, tragic events 60-70 years of XX century. in East Africa, participation in the struggle against the apartheid regime in South Africa, changes in Delhi's African policy in the 1990s, etc.

A. Dubey tries to consider the presence of Indians in Africa as a single historical process, the main factors of which were the colonial policy of England, the foreign policy of the Indian National Congress before and after India's independence, as well as the nationalist policy of the new authorities of African countries after their independence. The author emphasizes that the lack of desire to establish themselves as not only an economic, but also a political force in African countries, passivity and isolation, internal fragmentation of Indian communities did not allow them to establish themselves deeply in their host countries. No less to blame for this failure, he blames India's weak position in the international arena and the unwillingness of the congressional governments of those years to seriously engage in protecting the rights of compatriots abroad. Now, writes A. Dubey, the diaspora is becoming an international force and it is necessary to learn how to use the opportunities opened up in the process of globalization to strengthen its position. The author expresses support for the idea of forming an International Organization of People of Indian Origin (GOPIO) and calls on the scientific community of his country to pay special attention to studying its possible international role (pp. 168-169).

A. Dubey is characterized by a sober, and sometimes even excessively pessimistic, view of the history of relations between Indians and the local African population. Perhaps that is why the article pays almost no attention to the recent changes in India's relations with African countries. For example, the Ugandan Government, led by Museveni, has been pursuing a policy of "returning Asians" who were expelled from the country in 1972 since the late 1980s. Go Amin. India's trade and economic ties with African countries are growing, especially with the countries of Eastern and Southern Africa, in the development of which local Indian communities play the most prominent role. However, along with new opportunities, new dangers are emerging. For example, in Tanzania, the government's permission for Indian land acquisition has repeatedly caused serious conflicts between them and local pastoralists, and potential hotbeds of Indo-African conflict exist in Kenya and the province of Natal in South Africa.

The external manifestations of all these conflicts may be different, but they are usually based on the economic gap between the prosperous Indian minority and the majority of the indigenous African population, which is mired in poverty and misery, who perceive Indians as exploiters. To strengthen their position in Africa, Indian communities obviously need not only to move to greater participation in the social and political life of their countries of residence, but also to strengthen the socially significant elements of their business, abandoning its extreme forms, such as widespread usury. Unfortunately, A. Dubey, as well as other authors of the collection, are mostly scientists of Indian origin, who describe the frugality of Indians, their desire for education and entrepreneurship in a lot of convincing ways.-

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He writes little about this downside of the existence of the Indian diaspora in developing societies and its specific business ethics.

In conclusion, I would like to draw attention to one feature of the presentation of the collection's materials. A common thread through most of the articles is the idea of the need to unite Indian communities in different countries in the already mentioned GOPIO, the purpose of which should be to unite the efforts of the diaspora to ensure favorable living conditions and protect the interests of Indian communities in different countries. A number of authors of Indian origin note the similarity of the historical destinies of the Jewish and Indian diasporas and call on their compatriots to learn to defend their interests, taking into account the experience of those who have passed a similar path before them. They express the hope that the Government of India will actively participate in the work of the organization being created, and the increased economic, political and military power of the country will serve the interests of all Indians living in India and abroad.

list of literature

Listopadov N. A. Problemy otnoshenii mezhdunarodnoi Burma i Indii: istoriya i sovremennost ' [Problems of relations between Myanmar and India: History and Modernity]. Moscow: Izd.firm "Nauchnaya zhizn", 1995.

Listopadov N. A. Features of the foreign policy of Myanmar (Burma). Istoriya i geopolitika [History and Geopolitics], Moscow: Publishing House "Nauchnaya Zhizn", 1998.

Dmitriev G.L. Indian Revolutionaries in Central Asia. Kolkata, 2002.

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