Libmonster ID: IN-1469

Author(s) of the publication: M. V. Dobrovolskaya, M. B. Mednikova →

Educational Institution \ Organization: Institute of Archeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences →

Source: Archeology, Ethnography and Anthropology of Eurasia, June , 2011 Pages 143-156 →

The use of metal has opened up a new field of activity for humanity. There was a category of professionals-miners, foundry workers, blacksmiths, who in relation to the Bronze Age can be called "copper people". This publication is devoted to new methodological possibilities for identifying skeletal remains of representatives of the oldest metallurgists in paleoanthropological collections. Based on the data of anthropology, we reconstruct the features of the lifestyle of the blacksmith-bearer of the Abashev archaeological culture and his tribesmen buried in the collective burial of the Pepka kurgan. Methods of postcranial morphology, homeopathology, radiography and computed tomography of skeletal remains, histological, atomic absorption and isotope analysis of bone tissue allow us to determine the specifics of nutrition, the level of physiological stress, the timing of the beginning of professional specialization, and the impact of heavy physical labor on the state of health.

Keywords: Bronze Age, caster, lifestyle according to anthropology, physical activity, skeletal morphology, paleopathology, bone tissue chemistry.

Introduction

The development of metal as a source for creating tools opened up a new field of activity for humanity - initially mysterious and mysterious. The transformation of the natural environment and the creation of a qualitatively new material was impossible without the promotion of people who are versed in the extraction and processing of metal. So there was a category of professionals-miners, blacksmiths, foundry workers, which we can call "copper people" in relation to the Bronze Age. Their knowledge and skills, on the one hand, went beyond the scope of everyday experience, and on the other, were an integral part of it. According to M. Eliade, the blacksmith, potter, and later alchemist are "masters of fire". Fire as a means of "doing faster" and "doing something different" in comparison with what existed in nature, unites specialists in the field of the sacred - the shaman, the healer, the sorcerer. The Yakuts have "blacksmiths and shamans from one nest" (Eliade, 1998, p. 184). Attention was drawn to the metaphorical correlation of the melting process with the idea of a mystical marriage between man and metals [Ibid., p. 175]. According to the myths of Central India about the blacksmiths Asuras, human sacrifices to melting furnaces are known, and their traces can be traced in Africa [Ibid., p. 176 - 177]. Extensive ethnographic information about the hidden life of metallurgists of traditional society was collected by E. N. Chernykh [2007]. These data indicate a twofold

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the blacksmiths, who in different traditions can be both despised and especially revered clans.

What was the social status of a blacksmith or caster in the Bronze Age? The answer to this question can be given not only by archaeological, but also by paleoanthropological studies. To date, the only bioarchaeological reconstruction based on skeletal remains from a burial site containing a foundry mold has been published. Burial of mound 4 of the Pershinsky group of monuments (Orenburg region) belonged to a teenage boy, a representative of the Yamno-Poltavka cultural and historical community [Chernykh et al., 2005]. A. P. Buzhilova [2005, pp. 166-167] was able to identify on his right radial bone an increased development of relief, indicating intensive work of the hand. Active physical activity was indicated by the architecture of bone beams on the femur bones and the formation of roughness in the area of attachment of the gluteal muscles. In parallel, M. V. Dobrovolskaya [2005a, p.181] found that the concentration of copper in the ulna is 2 times higher than in the femur. Thus, for the first time, the involvement of an individual in the metalworking process was convincingly proved. The early age of initiation into this activity became obvious, because the foundry worker died at the age of 12-13.5 years. What biological consequences did metallurgy have for the adult population of that era? We will try to answer this question in this paper.

Pepkinsky mound: "blacksmith" and its surroundings

This unique monument of the Abashev culture near the village of Pepkino was investigated in 1960 by the Mari archaeological expedition led by A. H. Khalikov. The central burial, which contained the remains of at least 27 people, has no synchronous analogues (Khalikov, Lebedinskaya, Gerasimova, 1966). According to the first researchers, the Pepka mound became a mass grave of soldiers [Ibid., p. 9]. A repeated survey confirmed this hypothesis (Mednikova and Lebedinskaya, 1999; Mednikova, 2001). Despite the fragmentary preservation of the anthropological material selected during the excavations for subsequent storage, it was possible to typologize traumatic injuries and recreate the picture of the battle. Traces of ritual post-mortem and post-mortem manipulations with the bodies (trepanning, scalping, post-mortem extraction of large fragments of the cranial vault, destruction of the integrity of the bones of the limbs) were also revealed, and the assumption was formulated that the buried were united not only by the circumstances of death, but also by similar features of life. These could be not just active young tribesmen who took part in a military campaign, but members of one of their own families. "a man's house", and then complex manipulations with the bodies of new initiates, who were valuable to society, who passed through a specific stage of initiation, take on a special meaning. The accompanying inventory indicates a special thoroughness of the burial, which contrasts with other Abashev graves, which are usually not rich in artifacts. All individuals were men under the age of 30 (Mednikova, 2001), the youngest - 15-19 years (N20), the majority - 20-25 years (Table 1). Graphic reconstructions of the face indicate their similarity features. Apparently, most of those buried were related by blood. Only the remains of individual N8 are distinguished by morphological distinctiveness. It was found that it is characterized by low stature, greater massiveness of the skull, a significant width of the face [Khalikov, Lebedinskaya, Gerasimova, 1966, p. 39-43] and extreme development of the bone relief of the upper limb [Mednikova, 2001, Fig.8 to ch. 8]. A set of bronze-casting objects was found with this buried person, and three bear astragalus were also found here. Thus, the archaeological data definitely indicate the professional status of individual No. 8. Therefore, his skeleton was used by us to highlight the specific features of the blacksmith.

Results of chemical analysis of bone tissue

Copper is an active biogenic metal, the penetration of significant amounts of which during life can manifest itself in increased concentrations in human biological tissues, in particular, in skeletal ones directly adjacent to the place of physical contact. We conducted a study of the composition of the mineral part of bone tissues of individuals. The atomic absorption method was used according to the method repeatedly tested in bioarchaeological studies (Istoricheskaya Ekologiya..., 1998). In general, the concentration of copper in bone tissues is quite low. The exception is individual N8 - "blacksmith". In this sample, the copper concentration is higher by a mathematical order of magnitude. It can be assumed that this individual has been actively in contact with metal for many years. The bone sample of another buried person (N21) also has a relatively high concentration of copper. Perhaps this is due to the specifics of his classes. In such reconstructions, the question of the possibility of contamination is important. Is known,

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Table 1. Age structure of the buried (definitions by M. V. Dobrovolskaya and M. B. Mednikova)

Numbering of the buried*

On the skull

Based on the postcranial skeleton

Skull N 73 (backbone 1)

Approx. 25

Adultus

Skull N 74 (skeleton without number)

20 - 24

Skull N 76 (backbone 3)

25 - 29

Skull N 75 (backbone?)

25 - 29

Skull N 77 (backbone 4)

Approx. 25

Skull No. 78 (backbone 5)

Approx. 25

Skull N 79 (backbone 8-right humeral, ulnar, femoral, tibial, left pelvic)

Approx. 25

20-24, closer to 20 (traces of recent accretion of the upper epiphysis of the humerus)

Skull N 80 (backbone 12-left shoulder, elbow, femur, tibia, right pelvic fragment)

20 - 24

25 - 29

Skull N 81 (backbone 15?)

Approx. 30

Skull N82 (skull 136)

Approx. 25

Skull N 83 (bone 26-right shoulder)

Approx. 25

Adultus

Skull No. 84 (backbone 21)

20 - 24

18-20 (right humerus shows recent growth of the upper epiphysis)

No number (femur)

25 - 29

Backbone 7 (paired pelvic fractured, right tibial)

Adultus

Bone 10 (left ulnar, femoral, tibial, paired pelvic destroyed)

25 - 29

Backbone 14 (right elbow)

20 - 29

Backbone 16 (right shoulder, radial, ulnar, greater-and peroneal)

25 - 29

Backbone 17 (right radial and left pelvic)

20 - 29

Bone structure 18 (left radial, right femoral and tibial)

Adultus

Backbone 19 (left pelvic)

Bone 20 (fragment of the right humerus with a destroyed upper epiphysis, right ulna, fragment of the left femur)

15-19, closer to 15 (the upper epiphysis of the thigh, including the trochanter and lower epiphysis of the ulna, have not grown)

Backbone 24 (right pelvic)

Adultus

Backbone 25 (left elbow)

* We are forced to use a double numbering of the remains, because when they were received for storage, the skulls received collection numbers (and for some of them the archaeological documentation was lost), and the bones of the postcranial skeleton retained the archaeological numbering (one postcranial skeleton was depasportized).

that during prolonged stay of skeletal remains in the immediate vicinity of copper, bronze, and billon objects, metal salts and oxides penetrate into the surface layers of the bone, staining it in a characteristic green color. Such colored tissue cannot be used for analysis. In our practice, there have been numerous cases of postmortem contamination with zinc, copper, and heavy metals. These samples are characterized by extremely high concentrations of metal pollutants. Thus, during the study of the burial of the middle of the first millennium AD, the pea-shaped bone of the wrist was analyzed in good preservation, without staining and external disturbances. The obtained result - 14,315. 8 ppm of copper-made us seek advice from archaeologists, since this value significantly exceeds the possible lifetime concentration. It turned out that there was a bronze decoration on the individual's wrist. So, the result of postmortem contamination is easily recognized by the chemical method. Violation of the mineral integrity of bone tissue is also manifested in the formation of postmortem mineral neoplasms in the bone. We have prepared a section, in the study of which the destruction of intravital-

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no mineral structure was found. So, an independent method proved that the skeleton of N8 belongs to a person who was in close contact with copper during his lifetime. In addition, attention is drawn to the buried N21, in the bone tissue of which the concentration of copper is also increased.

Stress markers

A preliminary acquaintance with the presence of physiological stress indicators on the turtles of Pepkin Abashev residents reveals their similarity (Table 2). In general, we can talk about repeated episodic negative effects in childhood. The frequency of enamel hypoplasia is 81.8%, and in all cases it is recorded throughout the dentition (multiple). Two of the nine (22.2%) children examined for this trait experienced growth retardation three times (approximately at 3, 4.5, and 6 years of age), four (44.4%) - twice (approximately at 3 and 4.5 years of age; the future "blacksmith" belonged to this category of children), and one (11.1%) -twice. once. Apparently, buried N21 (skull N84) experienced the most stress: the crowns of its teeth have four transversal lines of growth retardation at the age of 3 to 6 years.

There were no cases of caries or odontogenic osteomyelitis in the group. Cervical tartar is present in everyone. Perhaps this is why 16.7% of Pepkin residents have lifetime tooth loss and paradontopathy is somewhat less common (8.33%). The strong development of the relief at the place of attachment of the masticatory muscle on the lower jaw (in 80% of the examined people, including the "blacksmith")indicates that they eat hard, coarse-fibrous food/

There were no cribrotic changes on the inner edge of the eye sockets. In 41.7% of Pepkin Abashev residents (including "Kuznets"), a superficial vascular reaction (VIP) was expressed in the brow area-a likely indication of a relatively long stay in cold, humid conditions. So, there is no indication of the separation of the future "blacksmith" in the period of his first childhood from his fellow tribesmen.

Table 2. Presence of indicators of physiological stress in those buried in the Pepkin burial mound

Skull number

Enamel hypoplasia

Dental decay

Abscess

Lifetime loss of teeth

Tartar treatment

Paradontopathy

Cribra orbitalia

VIP

Masseter Development

Multiple choice (at 3, 4.5 and 5 years old)

Strong

Multiple choice (at 3, 4.5 and 6 years old)

Moderate

+ (brow area)

Strong

Multiple choice (at 3 and 4.5 years old)

Strong

Multiple choice (at 3, 4.5 and 6 years old)

+ (brow area)

Multiple choice (at 3 and 4.5 years old)

+ (brow area)

Multiple entry (in 3 years)

Multiple choice (at 3 and 4.5 years old)

+ (brow area)

Multiple choice (at 3 and 4.5 years old)

Multiple (at 3, 4.5, 5, and 6 years of age)

Moderate

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Pathologies of the postcranial skeleton

Almost all the bones examined by us demonstrate the absence of articular pathologies, the consequences of inflammatory processes. In the backbone 8 ("blacksmith") on the left pelvic bone in the upper part of the articular surface, a bone growth of 11 mm in length and up to 2 mm in height is observed. The central-posterior part of the articular surface is bumpy, "finely pimpled". The right pelvic bone and sacrum were not preserved, which does not allow us to judge the symmetrical nature of pathological changes. The presence of bone growth may indicate the consequences of local sacroileitis. Entesopathy on the right femur at the site of attachment of m. gastrocnemius (caput mediale) can be attributed to conditions bordering on pathology.

The increased concentration of copper in the bone tissue of an individual encourages us to consider in the framework of differential diagnosis the manifestations of a rare hereditary disease associated with excessive accumulation of this element in the body as a result of a violation of its metabolism. Wilson's disease-Konovalov (hepatolenticular degeneration) is observed mainly at a young age, manifested by signs of damage first to the liver, then to the brain. Excessive copper deposition in the liver causes chronic hepatitis and, as a result, cirrhosis. After the liver is saturated with copper, the metal accumulates in the central nervous system. Concomitant neuropsychic changes include tremor, dysarthria, decreased intelligence, ataxia, personality changes, and epileptimorphic seizures. Excess copper entering the bloodstream can affect red blood cells, leading to the development of hemolytic anemia. Some patients develop arthropathy caused by the accumulation of copper in the joint tissues, which manifests itself in deforming osteoarthritis, mainly of the knee and hip joints. Secondary chondrocalcinosis , such as pseudogout or pyrophosphate arthropathy, is not excluded [Ivashkin and Sultanov, 2005, pp. 368-369]. Some clinical manifestations of Wilson-Konovalov disease, apparently, could also occur in Pepkin's "blacksmith", and with the accumulation of copper in the body, they could only worsen. At the same time, the increased concentration of biogenic metal in him was local in nature, in contrast to the much more severe congenital Wilson-Konovalov disease.

I would like to emphasize that no pathology was found on the pelvic bones of most of the other people buried in the Pepkin burial mound (N7, 10, 19, 24). However, the initial stage of changes in the sacroiliac joint is observed symmetrically on paired bones of buried N12. Among its other features is the curvature of the left ulna in the lower third. Primary changes in the surface of the sacroiliac joint are also observed in buried N17 on the left pelvic bone. It also has three large holes in the iliac wing, which can be considered either as nutritious or as a consequence of incomplete ossification in the places of cartilage inclusions.

The Abashev tribes used arsenic bronzes (Chernykh, 1966). The biological consequences of active contact with arsenic are practically unknown. Meanwhile, the volatility of its oxides, the ability of the element to accumulate in tissues, and its high toxicity suggest that ancient casters could not have been exposed to its influence. Obviously, constant contact with copper and arsenic affected the features of their morphophysiological status.

Reconstruction of physical activity

No phone number. The femur of a 25 - 29-year-old male is characterized by hypertrophy of the relief of the large and small trochanter, moderate development of gluteal tuberosity, rough line of the thigh and lateral epicondyle.

N1. A fragment of the right radius shows a very strong development of the interosseous margin. The right femoral is characterized by hypertrophy of the relief of the large and small trochanters, the average development of gluteal tuberosity and a rough line.

N7. A fragment of the right tibia shows hypertrophy of the anterior edge (2-3 points on a three-point scale), development of the interosseous edge, and a strongly accentuated line of the soleus muscle.

N8. On the right humerus, all the relief elements, including the small tubercle, inter-humeral furrow, deltoid tuberosity, and lateral margin, are extremely developed. On the right ulna (with the exception of the posterior margin surface, which is destroyed), a similar pattern is observed in relation to the interosseous margin, tuberosity, supinator ridge and distal lateral ridge. Thus, the constant and excessively intense physical activity that occurred on the right arm is recreated. The load on the lower limb was somewhat less. Like many other Pepkin residents, the "blacksmith" has the most developed topography of the skewers. On the surface of the greater trochanter, the broad lateral thigh muscle began, the middle and small gluteal, piriform, and obturator muscles were attached. The development of the terrain in this area mainly reflects

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hip movements when retracting and turning outwards and inwards. The small trochanter was attached to the iliopsoas muscle, which flexed the hip in the hip joint, and with a fixed lower limb-the lumbar region and tilted the body forward. The gluteal tuberosity is strongly developed - the place of attachment of the gluteus maximus muscle, starting from the crest of the ilium. Contracting with its entire mass, the muscle extended the thigh, turning it outwards. With a fixed lower limb, it extended the lumbar region, providing a "military bearing". The rough line of the thigh, the development of which is also associated with the attachment of the muscles that support its movements, is already developed more moderately than strongly. Moderate development is also characterized by the relief of the lateral epicondyle, which may indicate an average training of the biceps femoris, as well as the popliteal and calf muscles. On the right tibia, many relief elements (tuberosity, anterior and interosseous margins) are moderately developed. The relief of the soleus muscle line is minimally marked. But the maximum values are reached by the development of grooves and tubercles of the distal part of the posterior surface - the place of passage of the flexor muscles of the foot.

N10. On the left ulna, the interosseous margin and especially the tuberosity, the supinator crest, and the distal lateral crest are extremely developed. On the left femur, the relief of the greater trochanter is slightly more pronounced, but the other elements are formed moderately. On the tibia, the tuberosity is strongly developed, but the anterior and interosseous edges, the line of the flounder muscle are moderately and even weakly developed. The nature of the physical activity of this individual largely coincides with the physical activity of the "blacksmith".

N12. Only a small tubercle is strongly developed on the left humerus, the other elements are medium - sized. However, the relief of the left ulna is maximally pronounced in most signs. The relief of the left thigh is moderately developed throughout. On the left tibia, except for a strongly marked tuberosity, all elements are expressed rather weakly than moderately.

N14. The only preserved right ulna shows a strong development of all the relief elements.

N16. On the right humerus, a small tubercle, an inter-tubercular furrow are hypertrophied, to a lesser extent - deltoid tuberosity, the lateral edge is moderately developed. The relief of the right forearm bones is very pronounced, especially in the place of tuberosity and crest of the ulnar arch support, where changes border on pathology. The relief of the right tibia is poorly developed, except for the interosseous edge. The fibula is characterized by a "faceted" shape.

N17. The relief of the right radius is strongly developed in the area of tuberosity and interosseous margin, and moderately developed in the place where the extensor tendons of the hand pass.

N18. The relief of the left radius is strongly marked. On the right thigh, the reliefs of the large and small trochanters are moderately developed, the gluteal tuberosity and rough line of the thigh are extremely hypertrophied, moderate development is observed in the area of the lateral epicondyle. On the right tibia, the tuberosity, anterior and interosseous edges are maximally prominent; the line of the soleus muscle is weakly expressed, and the relief at the place of passage of the flexor muscles of the foot is moderate.

N20. This individual, the youngest of the Pepkin residents who did not complete longitudinal growth, shows the least development of the musculoskeletal relief of tubular bones. The relief of the left humerus is expressed minimally (at the level of 1 point on a three-point scale), and the right humerus is slightly stronger, especially in the area of the posterior edge and tuberosity, where it reaches average values for adults.

N21. This individual also belongs to the youngest (it is noteworthy, however, that around his skull lay "crowned seven astragalus bears", in a smaller number found before only in the "blacksmith"). Apparently, he is somewhat younger than the "blacksmith" and slightly older than individual N20. However, extreme hypertrophy of the small tubercle and inter-tubercular sulcus is already registered on his humerus. Thus, we can assume the training of the latissimus dorsi, subscapular, coracoid-humeral, large round and large pectoral muscles. Typical habitual movements are bringing the arm to the torso, turning, extending the shoulder, lowering the raised arm with a turn inwards. The deltoid tuberosity is moderately developed; it is possible that the young age of the person affected it. The lateral margin, which is structurally and functionally related to the muscles that flexed the forearm and extended the hand, shows a tendency to increase.

N25. On the only preserved left ulna, the relief is as pronounced as possible.

N26. A fragment of the right humerus shows moderate development of deltoid tuberosity and lateral margin.

Thus, all the representatives of the group were physically trained young people. However, the nature of the usual physical activity for most of them was somewhat different from the daily activities of the "blacksmith" and was not so intense. Attention is also drawn to the increased physical activity reconstructed for buried N21, which was previously distinguished along with the "blacksmith" both in age and in high copper concentration.

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The typical movements of this young man were somewhat different from those that caused hypertrophy of the relief of the "blacksmith", but the biomechanical stress experienced by the individual was also very strong.

Reconstruction of nutrition features

Chemical analysis of bone tissue allows us to reconstruct the ratio of the main food components in the diet of Pepkin men. We used zinc and strontium as the main indicators of nutrition. The concentrations of these elements are moderate (tab. 3), which is typical for inhabitants of rather forested landscapes. The same conclusion can be reached by referring to the data on the content of the stable isotope 13C (Table 1). 4), which correspond to terrestrial food resources in the temperate zone (Ambrose, 1993). Individual variability in zinc concentrations is quite high, which may be due to different dietary options. Thus, the lowest content of zinc and strontium was found in individual N 74 (backbone without number), and the maximum content was found in individual N82 (136). "Kuznets "does not stand out for extreme concentrations. Individual N21 has a pronounced tendency to increase the content of zinc and strontium, which probably indicates a more complete diet. In general, it can be assumed that a significant proportion of the everyday diet consisted of animal proteins, while the vegetable component was represented to a lesser extent. As a rule, the concentration of zinc is higher in hunter-gatherers who obtain protein from meat [Dobrovolskaya, 20056]. Perhaps its moderate values are associated with a large proportion of milk proteins.

Morphology of the postcranial skeleton

Features of growth processes and the formation of a certain variant of the human skeletal constitution depend on hereditary factors and the environment (Mednikova, 1995). It is proved that the longitudinal dimensions of long bones are influenced by diet, air temperature, heliogeophysical characteristics, and the degree of physical activity (Fedosova, 1989). Given the high probability of cohabitation and even nutrition of Pepkin Abashev residents, we can assume that most of the exogenous factors that formed the structure of their skeleton are similar, with the exception, apparently, of biomechanical stress, the level of which could differ markedly from person to person. The first osteometric study of Pepkin materials was performed by M. M. Gerasimova, who published the results of measuring 19 buried bodies based on eight structural features of the postcranial skeleton [Khalikov, Lebedinskaya, Gerasimova, 1966, p. 43, Table D]. The need for a more differentiated characterization of skeletal material in connection with the tasks of bioarchaeological reconstruction prompted us to re-study the currently preserved sample using a more extensive program (Table 5).

Table 3. Concentrations of zinc, copper and strontium in the mineral part of bone tissue, pmm

Individual's number

14,40

69,83

39,82

4,04

46,07

38,06

No phone number

4,02

42,17

32,82

No phone number

5,49

54,26

36,65

5,72

74,98

35,51

5,20

65,52

42,63

4,14

48,01

37,14

4,00

54,75

38,78

4,13

60,06

36,71

136

4,62

72,57

45,63

4,65

56,14

41,57

7,05

61,31

43,72

5,621667

58,80583

39,08667

2,789396

10,1046

3,560548

Results of radiocarbon analysis of bone tissue samples Table 4.*

Lab number

Number of the backbone (skull)

δ 13C

Date, l. n.

Hela-1199

136(82)

-21,4

3 640 ± 35

Hela-1200

5(78)

-20,0

3 665 ± 35

Hela-1201

15 (81)

-20,9

3 690 ± 35

Hela-1202

12 (80)

-21,0

3 640 ± 35

* Isotope analysis was performed at the Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory of the University of Helsinki. The authors take this opportunity to thank the head of the laboratory X. Jungner, as well as K. Karpelan and S. V. Kuzmin for their assistance.

When considering the parameters of the humerus, attention is drawn to the increased diaphyseal massiveness characteristic of N8 and 21. According to the strength index, the largest external massiveness in the sample is shown by "kuznets" (N8). Comparison of absolute values of the minimum circle

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Structural features of the postcranial skeleton Table 5.*

Attribute (number according to R. Martin's method)

No phone number

N10

N12

N14

N16

N17

N18

N20

N21

N25

N26

Humerus

302

346

334

296

298

340

329

293

56?

21?

23,5

15,5

55!

139

148

42,5

7 : 1

22,2

18,8

19,5

18,2

6 : 5

79,3

80,0

83,3

63,8

70,5

Ulna

252

262**

232

224

240

12,5

16,5

13,5

18,5

15,5

22,5

24,5

3 : 2

18,1

-16,7

15,6

14,6

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Continuation of Table 5

Sign

No phone number

N10

N12

N14

N16

N17

N18

N20

N21

N25

N26

11 : 12

88,4

75,8

81,5

75,7

80,7

86,7

100

13 : 14

102,3

95,8

109,5

122,5

83,3

Radius bone

254

251

243

244

17,5

3 : 2

17,3

16,8

5 : 4

74,3

68,6

73,3

The femur

454

452

426

438

474

420

446

422

470

418

31,5

28,5

100

21,5

32,5

22,5

47,5

152

8 : 2

21,3

19,9

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Continuation of Table 5

Sign

No phone number

N10

N12

N14

N16

N17

N18

N20

N21

N25

N26

6 : 7a

104,2

79,3

115,8

105,0

90,0

19,9

10 : 9

65,2

79,4

75,0

95,8

87,8

70,3

(18+19) : 2

22,6

The tibia

352

376

388

394

354

356

380

392

400

358

70?

31,5

37,5

22,5

21,5

22,5

24,5

22,5

84,5

10b

9a : 8a.

64,3

74,7

66,7

72,1

64,3

72,0

10b : 1

21,6

18,9

18,8

The fibula

376

Pointers:

R1 : H1. Radiolabular

73,4

R1 : T1. Luchebertsovy

67,6

H1 : F2. Brachiofemoral

71,6

70,5

T1 : F2. Shin joint

83,4

83,8

84,7

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End of Table 5

Sign

No phone number

N10

N12

N14

N16

N17

N18

N20

N21

N25

N26

Pelvis

220

201

1 : F2. Hip index

52,1

15. Height of the sciatic bone

17. Pubic bone length

* The top line measures the right bones, and the bottom line measures the left bones. "Without an ungrown lower epiphysis.

and the circumference in the middle of the diaphysis indicates a high variability of these signs. The large difference between these two dimensions has a clear functional reason, since in normal anatomy, thickening of the bone at the level of the middle can be caused mainly by the development of the deltoid tuberosity area. "Kuznets" shows the most significant difference (Fig. 1). At the same time, the index of the diaphysis cross-section in the sample is quite variable (tab. 5), which does not allow us to draw a definite conclusion about the impact of biomechanical stress. The structure of the ulna in the "blacksmith" is also characterized by increased massiveness. This is evident in the high values of the strength and cross-section indicators of the diaphysis. It is noteworthy that the platonic index does not seem to be very informative, being subject to the formative influence of other non-mechanical factors. According to the structure of the femur, "kuznets" shows average values of signs for this group, without detecting increased massiveness of the diaphysis. On the contrary, it has the lowest index of pilastria, associated with weak development of the diaphysis in the sagittal direction. In the subtrochanteric region, on the contrary, the femur is flattened to a lesser extent than in many other Abashevites. The diaphysis of his tibia is relatively thickened compared to other individuals. In particular, this is manifested in the highest values of the platycnemia and strength indices. It is noteworthy that the "blacksmith" and individual N12 are lower than the others in the sample (Table 1). 6), they may have been exposed to factors that slowed growth. On the X-ray image* of the blacksmith's tibia, there are 13 Harris lines, while in his tribesmen, the maximum number of such evidence of adverse effects is 3 (Fig. 2).

Figure 1. Ratio of humeral diaphysis circumferences (index 7 : 7a,%).

2. Number of Harris lines on radiographs of the lower tibial diaphysis.

* We photographed the tubular bones in this sample in standard projections with the Arman camera at 80 kV, 100 MA / s on ORWO film.

page 153
Body length (according to the formulas of M. Trotter, G. Glaser for Caucasians), see Table 6.*

Bone

Buried person's number

No phone number

Femoral

171

170

164

175,5

163

167

Tibial region

167

177

167,5

173

176

Peroneal gland

173

Shoulder area

165

164

178

175

Radiation therapy

170

176

174,5

* Determinations were made from preserved bones.

Geometry of the humerus cross-section

In recent decades, the geometry of the cross-section of human tubular bones has often been used to describe the features of the action of biomechanical stress. We used two methods to assess the shape of the cross-section and the degree of internal massiveness of the bones. First, the right humerus of Pepkin's "blacksmith" was examined on a CT Aura Philips CT scanner. Tomography allowed us to obtain axial sections with a thickness of 1.0 mm and reconstruct them with a thickness of up to 0.2 mm. The distances between anatomical points were determined using Centricity DICOM Viewer (version 2.2, 2004). Secondly, X-ray images of tubular bones in lateral and sagittal projections were obtained. After measuring the thickness of the walls of the diaphysis and the width of the medullary canal in standard planes, the cross-sectional area of the humerus in the middle of the diaphysis (SA), the cross-sectional area of the medullary canal (MA), the relative corticalization index (%CA) were determined using ellipse formulas, and the compaction indices of other tubular bones (femoral and tibial) were calculated. On the cross-section of the right humerus of the "blacksmith" (Fig. 3) there is a noticeable thickening of the walls, reaching extreme values in the lateral quadrant, which can be associated with bone growth at the site of maximum development of deltoid tuberosity. At the level of the latter, the compaction of the lateral wall is inhomogeneous, showing an obvious rarefaction of the thickness. We can assume similar morphological responses of bone tissue only in modern weightlifters. When considering the indicators of the cross-section of the humerus (Table. 7) there is a high individual variability both in the values of the cross-sectional area and in the degree of corticalization of the diaphysis. It should be emphasized again that the "copper people" - individuals N8 and 21-fall into the category of people with a wide section of the diaphysis. At the same time, N21 is characterized by an average wall development for this sample, and the "blacksmith" is distinguished by increased corticalization, second in this respect only to the buried N12. Taking into account the pattern of active bone tissue reaction revealed by computed tomography, we can assume that if the "blacksmith" did not die at the age of approx. 20 years old, the thickness of the compacts of his right humerus would have reached an even greater value.

3. Cross-section of the diaphysis of the right humerus of the "blacksmith" in the place of maximum development of deltoid tuberosity.

See Table 7. Geometry of the cross-section of the humerus bones in the middle of the diaphysis

Buried person's number

%CA

471

122,46

74,0

431,75

150,72

65,09

314

52,20

83,37

314

113,04

64,01

226,89

102,05

55,02

469,43

153,08

67,35

page 154
Microstructural features of the "Kuznets"humerus structure

A section was made based on a sample cut from the diaphysis of the right humerus of individual N8 ("blacksmith"). In the thickness of the compact tissue at the site of the maximum development of deltoid tuberosity, significant bone rearrangements are expressed, which are manifested primarily in the formation of extensive resorption cavities (Fig. 4). And, as is known, the formation of new bone tissue occurs after resorption. Thanks to these transformations, the terrain described above could have been formed. A significant number of resorption cavities, along with a large number of small osteons, indicate that the reconstruction of bone tissue was not completed. The death of an individual interrupted the formation of functional bone relief. It is important to note that the maximum number of resorption cavities is located in the middle part of the compact layer thickness, and not on the periphery. Perhaps the process of bone rearrangement has already passed its most active phase. Probably, a large number of resorption cavities could lead to the formation of stable tissue with elements of the spongy bone structure, which, as is known, has an intensive blood supply. It is possible that the described bone rearrangements also occurred to improve blood supply to the humerus, which was constantly experiencing heavy physical exertion.

Conclusion

Thus, the methods of complex bioarchaeological analysis showed the ability to identify the remains of representatives of the most important professions of the ancient world - blacksmiths and foundry workers-in a skeletal sample. The conclusion about the early beginning of their professional specialization is confirmed. Using the example of the "blacksmith" and his tribesmen, the level of stress in childhood and the age of active growth was assessed. Such indicators as enamel hypoplasia, the state of the dentoalveolar apparatus, etc., in "kuznets" correspond to the average values for the entire group. Apparently, the members of this male group ate the same food, which suggests their long-term cohabitation. The analyzed data do not confirm the privileged position of "kuznets" among Abashev residents. Morphological features allow us to reconstruct the constant extreme physical exertion experienced by the"blacksmith". Such loads during the adolescent spurt could hinder the implementation of the genetic program of growth, as a result of which it belongs to the shortest individuals of this group, being also the most brachymorphic. If in early childhood the amount of stress in the future "blacksmith" corresponded to the average indicators for the entire group (the severity of enamel hypoplasia), then in adolescence the number of negative episodes that led to growth arrest was many times higher than in his fellow tribesmen (the number of Harris lines). The consequences of biomechanical stress in the "blacksmith" are recorded both at the macromorphological level, and in indicators of internal massiveness of the tubular bones of the right hand, and during histological examination of bone tissue. At the same time, we do not exclude that the actual contact with metal and other chemical agents of metallurgical production could negatively affect health. Excessive accumulation of copper in the body as a result of professional activity could have manifestations similar to the so-called Wilson - Konovalov disease-a congenital metabolic disorder of this element. It is obvious that intensive work in the foundry could significantly affect the health of a person of the Bronze Age.

4. Histological structure of the diaphysis compacta at the level of maximum deltoid tuberosity development.

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Dobrovolskaya M. V. Khimicheskii sostav mineral'noi chasti skeleta [Chemical composition of the mineral part of the skeleton]. Kargaly, Moscow: Yazyki slavyanskoi kul'tury, 2005a, vol. 4: Nekropoli na Kargalakh; Naselenie Kargalov:

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Mednikova M. B. Trepanations in the ancient peoples of Eurasia. Moscow: Nauch. mir Publ., 2001, 304 p. (in Russian)

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The article was submitted to the Editorial Board on 01.11.08.

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